Racial Prejudice

Racial Prejudice It Is human nature to want to feel accepted. Prejudice In the United States, specifically with Immigration has been a major Issue. Julie Toasts describes this prejudice in â€Å"Evacuation Order #1 9† which is about a Japanese-American family and the internment camps that affect them during World War II. However, prejudice is not only found in the United States. Marine Satraps writes about her experience as an Iranian during the Iranian Revolution of 1979 and her refuge in Austria to finish high school In the graphic novel â€Å"The Vegetable†.While â€Å"Evacuation Order #19† Is about exclusion and â€Å"The Vegetable† Is about acceptance, they both deal with the pre]delude associated with Immigration. It Is hard to compare apples and oranges, just as it is hard to compare a short story and a graphic novel. Regardless of the style of writing, the point of writing is to convey a message to the reader. Both do a pretty good job of showing t he difficulties of living in a foreign country, but Toasts describes the exclusion associated with immigration in a more powerful way.Evacuation Order #19†³ by Julie Toasts is about a Japanese-American family living In California In the spring of 1942. After the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor In December of 1 941 , rumors began spreading around the united States that Japanese- Americans were going to sabotage military efforts. President Roosevelt issued an order that would imprison nearly 120,000 people with Japanese ancestry. The characters in â€Å"Evacuation Order #19† are being affected by this order. The family had assimilated into the community before President Roosevelt issued the order.We understand that the mother has a friendly relationship with the store owner Joe Lund. Melee Glasses,' Joe Lund said the moment she walked through the door† (Toasts 381 This shows that the family assimilated Into the local society because the shop owner comments on something new he sees with her. Joe Lund even offers that the mother does not have to pay for the items she purchased from the store. The reader is led to infer that the family has been a part of the community for a long time and they are nice people that wouldn't do anything to harm the country.As the story concludes, we see that the family is being taken to â€Å"wherever It was they had to SGF' because of their race and the family cannot do anything about It. The exclusion that is imminent on the family is a direct result of racial prejudice. â€Å"The Vegetable† by Mar]Anne Satraps takes place in the late asses or early 1 sass in Vienna, Austria and is about her own life. Marine Is Iranian and living without her parents as she attends school in Austria. During the late ass, Iran was going through a large scale political and social revolution.The revolution became violent in many tuitions, In fact in January of 1978 students began to protest and many students died during the protes t. As a reader of â€Å"The Vegetable† we don't know the nationality of Marine until page 482 when she sees stories about Iran on the TV and she talks about her attempts to â€Å"make her past disappear† (Satraps 482). We do not really see her being excluded or treated differently because of her nationality by the other students. It seems that she does not accept herself as she is constantly changing the way she looks and that she smokes marijuana with some of the other students.As and makes the comment about trying to disappear. In the end when she proclaims she finally relinquished the prejudice that she put on herself. The exclusion Marine feels is because of her race but also because she put herself into a situation where she feels excluded. Both stories show that the characters are capable of assimilating into the new culture and by the end the stories, racial prejudice has an effect on their lives. Evacuation Order #19†³ shows very clearly that the character s are being excluded based on racial prejudice where The Vegetable† implies that part of the exclusion is because of other factors, and not necessarily her race. The reader develops a stronger emotional feel for Tossup's characters because you feel bad for the situation they are in. To truly understand how a character is feeling, one would have to look at the choices or decisions that the character makes. The characters in these two stories both feel excluded, and the actions that they decide to take, show the extent of the racial prejudice.Julie Toasts writes about a mother who spends the entire day caking her house before her family and she are taken away. The degree of racial prejudice that she felt caused her to have a very emotional day. Not only did she pack away all of her belongings, she had to put down their dog, release their bird and hide sentimental objects and after hiding her emotions as to not scare her children, she finally has one last moment in her home to re flect on her emotions. â€Å"†¦ And began to laugh – quietly at first, but soon her shoulders were heaving and she was gasping for breath.She put down the bottle and waited for the laughter to stop but it would to, it kept on coming until finally the tears were running down her cheeks† (Toasts 386). Her emotions took over and she lost control because of the racial prejudice and what it made her do. Marine in â€Å"The Vegetable† felt such a strong exclusion from her racial prejudice that she decides to lie about her nationality to a stranger at a party. She wanted to disappear from her past because she was tired of being Judged based on where she is from. After Marine proclaims that she is proud to be Iranian, she starts crying. But really, I had nothing to cry about. I had Just redeemed myself. For the first time in years, I felt proud† (Satraps 485). She felt so relieved that the weight of racial prejudice was no longer affecting her and she began t o feel more comfortable. The actions that the characters perform in these stories show the power that racial prejudice put on them. The mother's actions in â€Å"Evacuation Order #19† are a bit more extreme than Manner's actions in â€Å"The Vegetable† and because the actions are more extreme, the reader can't help but feel more empowered by Tossup's story.While both Julie Tossup's â€Å"Evacuation Order #19† and Marine Satrap's â€Å"The Vegetable† have powerful effects on the reader, Toasts writes a more powerful story. She effectively shows the exclusion caused by racial prejudice and the effect it had on families during this time. â€Å"The Vegetable† has a confusing message because we are not sure if the stress she feels is from racial prejudice or if it is because of a teenagers desperate desire to feel included where â€Å"Evacuation Order #19† has a very clear and strong message of racial prejudice that makes the reader feel for them more.

Is it ethical to mask your true emotions in order to get along with others? Essay

Honesty is the best policy. Or is it not? As children, we were taught that honesty is telling the truth straightforward. We were told that it is being sincere, genuine, trustworthy, loyal, and fair. We were taught to tell the truth at all times, despite consequences. Our parents taught us to do our own homework, keep a friend’s secret, return stuff we found, and keep our promises. But as we grew older, the line between the truth and falsehood started to blur. We began to tell and accept half-truths. We began to resort to telling white lies to get out of potentially disastrous situations. We are confronted everyday by basic issues of honesty. If a man is forbidden by his wife to smoke, should he confess that he took a few sticks from his buddy’s pack when they were at the bar earlier that night? Is it really imperative that he do so when he only smoked two, maybe three, cigarettes? Does he have to be completely honest with his wife or can he get away with something that insignificant? If you are anti-Bush and attending a formal dinner where every single person at your table is pro-Bush, should you be completely honest and let everyone know your sentiment, at the risk of alienating yourself? Or should you save your Bush-bashing for another time and another place? Should you just go along with the conversation and act indifferent towards the topic? As Saki (1929) said, â€Å"A little inaccuracy sometimes saves tons of explanation†. But is this ethical? Or must honesty always reign supreme? Some people, institutions, and dogmas bolster the virtue of being completely, straightforwardly honest. But is it not also true that sometimes people who are brutally honest find more satisfaction from being brutal than from being honest? The philosopher Immanuel Kant claimed that the telling of a truth is the â€Å"perfect duty†. He said that it cannot be superseded by other values – not even the concern for the life of a friend or the loyalty to someone we love. He insisted that the act of lying is always incorrect morally. However, many scholars have found Kant’s philosophy to be too extreme and self-serving. In the book â€Å"On Moral Grounds†, moral philosophers Daniel Maguire and A. Nicholas Fargnoli (1991) state, â€Å"Very simply, Kant would not be the man you would want to stand between you and someone intent on murdering you – at least if Kant knew where you were. † Furthermore, Maguire and Fargnoli (1991) refer to Kant’s stand on lying to explore the restrictions of universal moral principles. They write, â€Å"Universalization is an unrealistic and inaccurate abstraction that passes over the fact that there are exceptions to valid moral principles. † Also, â€Å"To protect other values, like the life of an intended victim or a legitimate secret, exceptions to truth-telling must be made. † In her book â€Å"Lying†, philosopher Sissela Bok (1978) says, â€Å"The failure to look at an entire practice rather than at their own isolated case often blinds liars to cumulative harm and expanding deceptive activities. Those who begin with white lies can come to resort to more frequent and more serious ones†¦ The aggregate harm from a large number of marginally harmful instances may, therefore, be highly undesirable in the end – for liars, those deceived, and honesty and trust more generally. † For the author, there is danger in all acts of lying because there is a possibility that the telling of even the smallest of lies may affect common discourse. She emphasizes that lies have a tendency to â€Å"spread†. Lies, even the most seemingly insignificant ones, can grow and affect other aspects of our lives. Nowadays, most people are utilitarians when it comes to the topic of honesty. White lies are okay because they probably don’t hurt anyone; but we avoid outright lies that have the possibility of offending or harming others. However, the utilitarian attitude to truthfulness has to have its limitations. As author Austin O’Malley said, â€Å"Those who think it is permissible to tell white lies soon grow color-blind†. Telling a white lie -like reassuring a sick person that he looks much better when, in fact, he doesn’t- is alright; but if it becomes a habit, there could be dire consequences. A person may lose credibility and respect from his partner, family or friends. Masking one’s true emotions to keep the peace in a certain situation or in order to get along with others can be ethical, but there are limits to how far you can go with faking how you really feel. There is a very fine line between truth and fiction, between lies and white lies. Even the Bible makes this distinction. The commandment does not say, â€Å"Thou shalt not lie†; instead, it says, â€Å"Thou shalt not bear false witness. † This means that lies that do not cause harm –for example, telling the hostess that a meal she made is really good when it was, in fact, absolutely horrible- is acceptable. In this instance, the lie is told to make the person feel better about herself and to show appreciation for her efforts. Here, the lie was actually made in attempt to do something good. However, a lie that could have grave consequences –such as when a person who has caused damages to his neighbor’s property does not admit that he did so to avoid having to pay for the cost of repairs- is a sin. To mask one’s true feelings in order to get along with others is fine as long as a person keeps to the boundaries and the motivation behind the lie or the masking of the truth is valid. Another consideration would be the frequency with which the person disguises his true opinions or feelings. If done too often, the person could risk losing his sense of self and authenticity. In â€Å"The Critic as Artist†, Oscar Wilde (1905) says that â€Å"a little bit of sincerity is a dangerous thing, and a great deal of it is absolutely fatal†. For people in relationships, he may have a point. Honesty may not be the best policy when we are hiding aspects of ourselves from the other person, when we do not want to be revealed, to be known completely. Honesty may not be the best policy when we do not want to get into trouble or when we are avoiding conflict. Honesty may not be the best policy when we are trying to spare the other’s feelings, when we do not want the other to feel hurt or disappointed. In a relationship, people may tell lies because they believe that it is the kind thing to do. Robert Brault once said that, â€Å"Today I bent the truth to be kind, and I have no regret, for am I am far surer of what is kind than I am of what is true. † Noble lies, which are intended for another’s benefit, are usually made under these kinds of circumstances. But while the motivation behind this type of lie may seem valid, there are still those who believe that the concept is flawed. Critics of utilitarianism say that â€Å"people often poorly estimate the consequences of their actions or specifically undervalue or ignore the harmful consequences to society (e. g. , mistrust) that their lies cause† (Mazur, 1993). Also, the concept of lying for the sake of a â€Å"greater good† may cause a further blurring of the line between moral justifications supporting the greater good and empty excuses.

Observation Report Essay

On the 7th of March 2013, I visited the Kogarah Court House for two hours. During this time period, I became particularly aware of the court’s role, purpose and place within the Australian legal hierarchy of courts rules and boundaries, set by adults and peers alike, that the children often encounter when attempting to frame their interactions in an acceptable way. To simply walk up to a group of children and ask them to play in a friendly manner represents only a miniscule factor of social development. As a child interacts, he or she must learn to interpret a wide variety of complex cues and requirements. Problems arise when separate requirements conflict with one another or with the child’s own perceived needs and, at times, it is difficult for the child to understand that these requirements even exist! The internalization of formal rules is one facet of social development to which adults assign great significance. Indeed, noncompliance is the â€Å"most frequent reason for psychiatric referral of young children† (Schaffer, 1999, p. 250). Self-control is important, of course. â€Å"Adults play a crucial part in helping children to achieve control over their own behavior; it is only through initial dependence on others that a child can develop autonomy† (Schaffer, 1999, p. 249). What many adults tend to overlook, however, is that children are sometimes trying to operate within several different â€Å"realities,† each of which sets forth an entirely different set of rules. For example, Turiel (cited in Schaffer, 1996, p. 268) notes that the requirements set forth by the family differ significantly from the requirements set forth in the â€Å"outside world.† Similarly, the objectives of the adults on the playground are very different from the objectives of one’s cohorts, and the child must find a way to interact that satisfies the rules delineated by both groups if he is to function successfully. Finally, the child must also learn the appropriate ways to meet his or her own needs. Thus, the process of moral development is far more complex than memorizing simple phrases such as â€Å"do this† and â€Å"don’t do that.† Several attempts have been made to construct a model that tracks the moral development of children. In this paper, I have found the work of Piaget, and Kohlberg to be the most useful references to explain the observations I made on Woodward’s playground. In some way, each of their theories assumes that moral development follows a pattern in which the child progresses from fulfilling the needs of the self to fulfilling the needs of the whole. It is important to note, however, that, like any form of development, the internalization of rules does not occur in a rigid, homogeneous pattern. I witnessed displays of egocentrism in children who, according to Piaget, should have moved well into the third stage of moral development by then. The concept of â€Å"soft assembly† (Thelen, 1994, p. 30) in the dynamic systems perspective provides a much better format for the progression of moral development. According to the dynamic systems perspective, there is no predetermined outcome. Rather, certain innate possibilities, such as the potential for various types of moral reasoning, that lay within the child are assembled in a malleable configuration when the environment for such growth is provided. A pattern of behavior emerges as the self-organizaition continues, becoming more and more stable over time (Thelen, 1994, pp. 30-31). In the example of moral reasoning, the child, recalling memories from each stage in his or her life, attempts to create a sensible â€Å"pattern† from these experiences. It is this pattern that leads to the internalization of a belief system, the belief that â€Å"this† is the way things â€Å"ought to be,† and therefore, this is what I â€Å"should† do in this situation. Everyone has a unique life experience. Therefore, it makes sense that some children may have had more opportunity than others to expand their realm of self-awareness into the more complete awareness of the whole. In this paper, I will explore different aspects of several experiences that I had with the children, attempting to make sense of their moral interpretations of each situation. I will use the theories of Piaget, Kohlberg, and Eisenberg to provide a loose context for their behavior, with the understanding that each child is different, and may not fit the profile set forth by each theory in other situations. On the playground, the children do not know that they are learning. Their behavior is, for the most part, purely spontaneous, and, sometimes, they happen upon a new form of successful interaction quite by accident. It is then up to them to remember this behavior, and to utilize it in future situations. * To protect their identities, fictitious names have been given to all children mentioned in this report. Observations Monday, April 16, 2001 Immediately upon entering the playground setting, I became engaged in an opportunity to define a rule for a group of children and apply its importance to a greater context. The discussion took place between myself and three little girls who were enthralled by my necklaces. The necklaces, I told them, came from my grandmother, and so they were pretty special to me. I then took the necklaces off to give them a closer look, and offered to let them wear one each for the duration of recess. I made it clear, however, that I needed them back at the end of the play period, assuming that they would understand that this deal was non-negotiable. The girls wanted to keep the necklaces for themselves, however, and seemed unable to comprehend that I had set this boundary because I had a â€Å"greater motivation† (i.e. I did not want to keep the necklaces simply because I liked them and was being â€Å"selfish,† but because they were from my grandmother and therefore had sentimental value). Instead, they were more focused on the immediate, tangible evidence, which to them implied that I should be more thoughtful of their needs. â€Å"Why should you get to keep all of them?† one of them asked me. I had several necklaces, they went on to explain, so why couldn’t I just give each of them one of mine and keep one for myself? When that didn’t work, they tried to show me how similar the necklaces were—I could give them that one and keep the one that looked just like it. When I held my ground, they resorted to bargaining: if they could make it all the way across the monkey bars, then would I consider relinquishing the jewelry? At this point I reminded them that gifts from relatives were very important to people, and that my grandmother would be hurt if she knew that I sometimes gave away the presents that she had given to me. I asked them how they would feel if somebody wanted to take a gift from their grandmothers. I also stressed that I had explained the conditions before I took the jewelry off. After this explanation, they seemed to be more thoughtful, and willing to accept the limitations of our agreement. At the end of the play period, each of them willingly sought me out and gave the necklaces back, asking if they could wear them again next time. Without guidance, these girls evidently operated within Kohlberg’s second stage of moral understanding, the instrumental purpose orientation. At this stage, children are able to understand individualized needs, but believe that each individual should and will act in his/her own best interest (Kohlberg, 1969, cited in Berk, 2000, p. 493). Accordingly, the girls formed the belief that they deserved to have the necklaces based on their personal desires, and believed that my desire to keep the necklaces were purely based on self-interest as well. This level of thinking coincides nicely with the â€Å"needs of others† orientation, which is the second stage in Eisenberg’s levels of prosocial reasoning. Without my guidance, they displayed limited perspective-taking skills, as they were unable to conclude on their own that I might want to keep the necklaces because they were a gift. Their interest was more focused on the concrete, material desire (Eisenberg, 1982, cited in Berk, 2000, p. 493). Once I pointed out that my grandmother would be hurt and discussed how they might feel if they were in my position, they were able to take a more empathetic perspective on the situation. In this situation, the girl’s thinking process coincided more effectively with Eisenberg’s level of empathetic orientation (Eisenberg, cited in Berk, 2000, p. 505), as Eisenberg was less concerned more with an empathetic understanding of rules than Kohlberg, who is more oriented toward a utilitarian ethical structure that focuses on punishment, authority, and the needs of society (Berk, 2000, p. 505). With my reminder, they were able to reflect hypothetically upon the situation and understand how they would feel if they were either in my situation, or my grandmother’s. While it is helpful to classify the children’s level of moral reasoning in order to understand that a progression did take place with the proper instruction, it is more important to understand that a child’s moral development is just that: a progression. With their life experience, the girls were not yet able to instantly consider how another person would feel, and based their demand on their immediate need. Here, the theory of soft assembly comes into play. They would be able to take this experience and apply it in the future, incorporating more and more experience into their moral development. Selman (1980) indirectly supports the theory of soft assembly through his model of children’s stages of empathy, by postulating that children begin upon the path to empathy by understanding the views of others as being highly individualized and flexible. Later, as their ability to think in more abstract terms develops, and as their experiences accumulate, they begin to consider the views of others simultaneously (Selman, 1980, cited in Schaffer, 1996, p. 173). Although the fact that they were unable to advance right away is partially due to their lack of sufficient cognitive development, empathetic reasoning is also hindered by lack of experience, and a sufficient â€Å"template† of the circumstances of others. I provided this template by describing my feelings and my grandmothers feelings, connecting both of our individual sentiments to the overall concept of sentimental value. When I reminded them to reflect upon â€Å"how they would feel,† they considered their own varied assortment of life experiences and applied certain experiences to the concept I had just explained, and were more capable of understanding why I had placed this limitation on their use of the necklaces. With clear and positive guidance, these third graders demonstrated that they were capable of developing a sense of empathy and understanding a standard in the spirit of its application, but only when they were provided with the opportunity to think about their actions. In order to facilitate this development, the authority figure can use several techniques. Each can have a different impact upon the way that a child processes information, and therefore each can lead to a different outcome in the development of a moral code. Hoffman (1977) hypothesizes that authority figures use three methods of discipline to show children the nature of their â€Å"moral mistakes:† love-oriented discipline (if you do/don’t do this, my opinion of you will be enhanced/lessened), power-assertive discipline (do/don’t do it because I said so), and inductive discipline (do/don’t do it for this reason) (cited in Schaffer, 2000, pp. 305-306). Hoffman’s research has shown that inductive discipline is usually the most effective, because it not only explains the rules, but also appeals to the child’s own emotions (Hoffman & Salzstein, 1967, cited in Schaffer, 2000, p. 306). This was the technique that I used, and it did indeed prove to be effective. Through this exchange, one can see the connection with the dialogue between the authority figure and the child described by Schaffer. With patience, the adult uses the child’s questions to provide feedback about important details in everyday life, and to establish and negotiate rules and boundaries (Schaffer, 1996, p. 261). I used the girl’s questions to talk about the relationship between grandparents and grandchildren, and the nature of giving gifts. By the end of the conversation, the little girls had a slightly deeper understanding of the concept of â€Å"sentimental value.† Thursday, April 19, 2000 Hoffman has found that, while most parents tend to use one of the three techniques more often than the others, parents usually end up using some combination of all three in order to gain compliance from their children emotions (Hoffman & Salzstein, 1967, cited in Schaffer, 2000, p. 306). I found that, in order to effectively maintain control over a larger group of children, I sometimes assumed the role of the enforcer, using power-assertive discipline along with inductive discipline. The first incident that illustrated this combination of techniques involved a small group of boys, both in the third or fourth grade, who were threatening to jump off of the swings. I told them that this might not be such a good idea, because, I explained, they seemed to be able to swing very high. They talked back, claiming that they would, and I told them that if they did, they would have to sit with me for the rest of the period. This assertion seemed to have the desired impact. The boys decided not to jump off of the swings. Later, however, it became apparent that my more authoritative instruction failed to instill a true sense of â€Å"playing safely on the playground.† This was illustrated five minutes later, when I turned around and saw that the boys were challenging the other children to walk between the swings without getting hit. Once again I informed them that their behavior was unsafe, but they continued to play in this manner until I stepped into the area between and physically stopped the swinging. â€Å"If you can’t play safely,† I told them, â€Å"You can’t play.† By assuming a more authoritative role, I was responding to two aspects of the situation. First of all, their behavior was dangerous, and there was a very real chance that one of the children running between the swings could have gotten hit at any moment. Secondly, these boys were responding in a very confident manner, and acting assertively was the only way I could get their attention. Actively stopping the swinging by itself without providing an explanation would have been a purely power-assertive role, however, because I provided the boys with feedback for why I was doing this (they were not playing safely and somebody could have been seriously injured) I was also using inductive discipline. However, there were drawbacks to my reaction, and, while it did keep them safe for the moment, power assertion is not the best way to instill an autonomous reaction to a rule. The rule came from the â€Å"outside,† and (fortunately) they were unable to witness the consequences of their actions. Piaget argues that the best way for children to obtain his highest stage of moral understanding, moral subjectivism, in which children recognize that rules are â€Å"arbitrary agreements† that are sometimes based on motivation, is to interact with their peers. He believed that â€Å"cognitive conflict,† which is the most powerful motivating factor in provoking change, can be caused most easily by â€Å"interpersonal conflict† (Piaget, 1932, cited in Schaffer, 1996, pp. 292-293). It is difficult for interpersonal conflict to emerge in a vertical relationship between a child and an adult, the one-way interaction wherein the adult sets aside his/her own needs in order to meet the needs of the child. In a horizontal relationship, however, which takes place between peers, reciprocal behavior is demanded by both parties, and conflict can easily begin if one party feels that his/her needs are not being met (as cited by Tan, 2001). It was not until I became involved in a more structured game, where adult rules were consistent and obvious, and the interactions of the children were cooperative and directed at meeting a wide variety of goals, that I was able to observe the scope of the variables in moral development. I also was able to compare the more flexible nature of the informal rules that emerge within a group of children without direct adult feedback. Thursday, April 26, 2001 The game that allowed such a rich opportunity for observation is called â€Å"Pom Pom Pull- Away,† and it is usually run by Mary, one of the head playground supervisors. The formal rules are quite simple: players run across the soccer field in order to avoid being tagged by the players who are â€Å"it.† The â€Å"its† are accumulated until one runner is left out. This runner then gets to choose whether or not he wants to be it for the next round. This game, I have found, is the most efficient way to observe the children’s behavior on their own terms, in â€Å"their world,† according to their own laws of social functioning. When the game runs smoothly, Mary and I are merely there to ensure that the game proceeds at a quick pace, and that the â€Å"chaos† remains ordered. The kids in this group are fourth graders, and they seem to be quite competent at following the simple structure of the game. According to Piaget, children of this age have generally entered what he calls the â€Å"cooperation stage† of the application of rules. At this age, winning is still the primary goal of playing the game, but by now the children have developed a â€Å"sense of mutual control, unification of rules, and agreement within a game† (Piaget, 1932, cited in Singer & Revenson, 1996, p. 99). The children tend to be â€Å"hyper-conscious† of the rules, and are quick to point out the mistakes of their teammates. Usually they try to direct Mary’s or my attention to the actions of the â€Å"culprit.† 9 Although their censure usually coincides with an action that has negatively affected their own performance in the game, their awareness demonstrates that they are beginning to internalize the need for the rules, and most of them understand that the rules do not merely exist because the adults â€Å"said so.† I am more interested, however, in the kids’ set of rules; they have their own â€Å"code.† Piaget accounts for this in his stages, stating that children at this level often retain individual interpretations of the rules (Piaget, 1932, cited in Singer & Revenson, 1996, p. 99). During the course of the game, it also became apparent that they had a separate understanding of the purpose of the game from the adults. Mary mentioned that she has them play this cooperative game because it helped them to function better as a group, and since they had started it she had noticed a significant improvement in their cooperative behavior at lunchtime. The children themselves, however, seem to play the game for various other reasons, especially status. The game becomes an excellent opportunity for the child to view his or her own behavior compared to other members of the group, and, generally, there is a firm consensus about what is acceptable to the group and what isn’t. For example, whiny or pouting behavior is tolerated far more easily by the adults than by the children, whereas, interestingly enough, the children seem to have a higher tolerance for aggression, unless it is directed at them. For example, I observed several particularly â€Å"rough† tags during the course of the game, but only the children at whom the aggression was directed would respond. However, when children resisted assuming the position of â€Å"it,† (and they often did) I would frequently hear comments from his/her peers such as â€Å"You are holding up the game!† Conversely, Mary and I are more likely to stop aggression, and we are far more sympathetic to tired or frustrated children, reminding them frequently that it is ok to take the option of resting on the side of the field. Nevertheless, it seems to be far more detrimental to one’s social status to break the code set forth by the children themselves than it is to break the rules set forth by the adults! This â€Å"code† is far more intrinsic in their behavior; it is simply expected that their standards (such as bravery or stoicism) will automatically be known. This higher expectation could be because they have yet to understand the situational nature of behavior—as stated before, â€Å"rules† are still rather rigid and universal before Piaget’s stage of moral subjectivism is reached. Also, the rules set forth by the adults represent a convention that shifts from situation to situation; the teachers in the classroom hold different expectations from Mary on the playground. However, at Woodward, the children’s group always remains the same—the same class has the same playground hours. Thus, they have more of an opportunity to observe one another, and they establish a more consistent code, which I will call the â€Å"code of social morality.† This code is intrinsic enough to be consistent with Turiel’s definition of convention versus morality, as described by Schaffer: â€Å". . . children learn to make the distinction between these two categories from a quite early age because of the different types of social interaction that they involve. Conventions are dogmatically taught, being handed down by authority. Initially, they may be regarded as universal; it does not take long, however, before children realize that the done thing in one’s own family is not necessarily the done thing in any other family. Moral principles, on the other hand, are acquired because children perceive that certain actions have consequences for other people that are intrinsically harmful: witnessing a younger child being hit is sufficient to show that such an act, in whatever social context, is undesirable. Thus children begin to construct two quite different domains of knowledge about the social world and its functioning† (Turiel, 1983, cited in Schaffer, 1996, p. 268). In this quote, the teachers play the role of the â€Å"family,† and the playground assumes the role of the â€Å"real world.† Here, the children have the opportunity to witness the actions that are intrinsically harmful within the social needs of their age group. Because they are less closely supervised on the playground, they are more likely to â€Å"be themselves,† and witness the consequences of their behavior firsthand. And, because status is so important, the requirements of the adults naturally become a second priority. One boy grew particularly angry at his peers during a hiatus in the game and a shoving match began. Later, I saw two children collide, and their immediate response was to ask one another if they were all right. Positive and negative responses such as these occur without any adult intervention, and it is the social outcome of these behaviors that catalyze the child’s formulation of a moral theory. Friday, May 11, 2001 Frequently, the children search for ways to â€Å"bend† the adult rules in order to advance their status. Most of the time, in this game, the key to status is to be tagged last, proving that they are faster and better athletes than their peers. Others resort to other methods, such â€Å"playing tricks.† This is usually amusing to the adults as well as the kids. They are permitted to take breaks that last one round, sitting on the sidelines when they get too hot or too tired. Several of the boys, however, simply began to walk across the field one day, stating that they could not be tagged because they were â€Å"on break.† For them, this was merely a strategy that would help them to avoid being tagged until they reached the other side of the field, at which point they would call â€Å"time in† again. When I reminded them that breaks could only be taken on the sidelines, they claimed that the rules stated that breaks had to be taken by walking across the field. I understood that this was not the case, and another supervisor supported me. At this point the boys laughed, and began to run again. It is amusing to fool the adults and their peers, and none of the children would ever label their own behavior as â€Å"cheating.† They are quick to recognize it in others when it interferes with their efficacy in the game, but they do not seem to realize that these rules can be applied to themselves as well. When they are labeled as â€Å"cheaters,† they will in fact say almost anything to defend their behavior, demonstrating that, while children of this age are just learning to understand the actual value of the rules as they apply to the group, they are simultaneously learning to view themselves as playing a functional role within this group. Although the boys were â€Å"breaking the rules,† Schaffer reminds us not to become worried by some demonstrations of noncompliance. Through simple tricks such as these, the boys were developing â€Å"social skills and strategies to express their autonomy in a socially acceptable way† (Kuczynski, Kochanska, Radke-Yarrow, and Girnius-Brown, 1987, cited in Schaffer, 2000, p. 251). They were tired, but they did not want to be removed from the game, and it was perceived as being more socially acceptable by their peers to walk across the field rather than to sit down. Furthermore, it is completely understandable that they would still demonstrate some egocentrism by believing that  the rules apply to others and not to themselves, for they are still forming their identities in a group context. Schaffer cites a study by Hartshorne and May (1928-1930) that found that children’s tendency to lie fluctuates depending on the situation with which they are confronted, and that a child’s tendency to lie is therefore not an innate characteristic (Schaffer, 2000, p. 301). It seems that, when children engage in behaviors such as bending the rules, they are in fact testing socially acceptable boundaries. Monday, May 14, 2001 I observed the most obvious struggle for status in a child whom I will call Justin (not the child’s real name). He did not seem to be as athletic as the other children, and many times he would accidentally collide with somebody, or trip, and then burst into tears. After falling, he would often blame the other child for his misfortune, and at times making an appeal to authority, telling me that he had been singled out by his peers, once more, as an object of their aggression. Early in the game, I observed that this was not the case; that the falls were all accidents, and Justin’s reactive behavior might be exacerbating his social situation. After one particularly bad episode, I decided to talk to Justin. As he collected himself, he began to tell me how he felt. He claimed that â€Å"Nobody ever left him for last,† meaning that he felt that his teammates were singling him out personally to tag first. Here, he demonstrated that he had a more egocentric interpretation of the social code. Like a younger child in Piaget’s egocentric stage of moral interpretation, his concept of rules was flexible, indefinite, and tailored to fit his individual needs (cited in Singer & Revenson, 1996, p. 98). At this particular moment, he firmly believed that one of the implied rules of the game was that he, as an individual, should not be tagged so often, even though, to an adult, it would seem that he did not get tagged any more often then the other children. This slight difference in maturity also affected his perception of the â€Å"social code,† and he eventually developed a tendency to rely upon me to enforce his current interpretation of the rules. For example, when we returned to the game, he expected that I would tell the other children that it was his turn to be â€Å"it.† According to Piaget, write Singer & Revenson, in the egocentric stage of social development, â€Å"[children] feel a communion with the abstract, ideal adult who epitomizes fairness and justice, but at the same time they may be inventing their own rules throughout the game† (1996, p. 98). Justin clearly hoped that I would intervene when it seemed that his peers were not treating him according to his perception of fairness, even though this perception would alter to fit the current situation. His style of interaction with me also often assumed the form of a â€Å"monologue,† which is Piaget’s stage of language development that coincides with the egocentric stage of rule development (cited in Singer & Revenson, 1996, p. 98). In the collective monologue, a group of children play together and speak, but the speech is often unrelated to what the others are saying or doing, and the purpose is rarely to exchange real information (cited in Singer & Revenson, 1996, p. 60). This immature style of communication may inhibit a child’s ability to communicate with more mature peers, limiting his or her opportunity to absorb the â€Å"code† set forth by the group. Shortly before Justin and I returned to the game, I tried to encourage Justin by stating that â€Å"everybody has different talents,† and that â€Å"some people are better at sports than others.† He comprehended my implication, and stated that he was good at playing tic-tac-toe. However, he then attempted to show me how to play the game by drawing in the dirt, when I needed to be with the other children, because the other playground supervisor had gone in. He did not seem to notice that I needed to be interacting with the other children, and showed little interest in the bigger game until he realized that he now had an opportunity to be â€Å"it.† â€Å"I want to be ‘it,’† he told me, but made no further comment when the other children protested. He simply looked at me and was apparently waiting for a response. Here, he relied heavily on our vertical relationship to ensure that he would be treated fairly. For him, it was perfectly natural to put the game â€Å"on hold† while he showed me his skill, and to expect me to help him to assume a leading role once he was finished. Unfortunately, this perception did not coincide with that of his peers, and Justin experienced even more trouble with acceptance as the game progressed. Later on, Justin did tag one of the bigger boys. This particular child, Alex, often displays reactive tendencies as well, but is far more athletic, and generally it seems that the other children leave him alone. I happened to be watching Justin, and thus happened to witness Alex’s immediate reaction as well. Immediately he turned around and leaned over Justin, who was a good head shorter than he. His eyes were wide and his expression was angry, and it seemed to me as though he was ready to push the smaller child. I yelled Alex’s name and told him that this action was not acceptable, that Justin had tagged him â€Å"fair and square.† This diffused the immediate conflict. Alex, however, continued to insist that Justin â€Å"always went after him,† and that â€Å"it wasn’t fair.† Once again, this illustrates how children have the egocentric tendency to alter their own rules to fit their needs during the course of a game. Alex did not want to be â€Å"it† anymore, and so he felt that he was justified in blaming Justin for tagging him â€Å"all of the time† so that he would not have to be. Perhaps he selected Justin because his peers were biased against Justin at the time, and would be more likely to accept his assertion that â€Å"Justin was acting out again.† In this instance, the â€Å"understood rules,† the intense desire for â€Å"fairness† that so often dominates the game, could have very well developed into a bully/victim dynamic should this aggressive pattern have been allowed to continue. However, in this early stage of the interaction, it was clear that Alex’s behavior was largely due to his perception of Justin’s intent. In late childhood, asserts Schaffer, children are more likely to link their behavior to the motivations of others (1996, p. 280). Alex also displayed some egocentric behavior, however. His actions, in this instance, can be linked to Kohlberg’s stages of moral understanding. By stating that Justin â€Å"always went after him,† he assumed that Justin (and probably others) was doing this in his own self interest, probably because it made Justin â€Å"look good† to tag one of the bigger boys. This fits nicely into Kohlberg’s instrumental purpose orientation, in which behavior is reciprocal, but each participant acts in his own self interest with the assumption that the other will do the same (cited in Berk, 15 2000, p. 493). This provides insight into the perspective that bullies often take when defending their actions toward victims. Because the aggressive child attributes his/her actions to another’s behavior, he/she is likely to believe that the other child â€Å"brought it on himself.† The aggressor’s assumption is precluded by another assumption, a moral belief that may lead to a bullying dynamic: that the victim should know that the bully will behave in a way that will further his own interests, and therefore, the victim should take the appropriate measures to protect himself. Fortunately for everybody, the need for social status also encourages prosocial behavior, especially in children such as Justin, who are having difficulty with acceptance from the group. This was certainly the case with Justin. The next observation I made of Justin’s interaction with his playmates had a far more positive outcome. Either somebody had been teaching him the benefits of prosocial behavior, or he had simply figured out that it is more beneficial to act in a manner that keeps the game moving â€Å"forward.† This time, around the beginning of the game, Justin entered late, when the team member who had been tagged last was trying to choose a partner who would be â€Å"it.† Justin asked rather brightly if he could â€Å"help,† and the other boy said that he could. Mary, Bill and I all acknowledged his contribution. The need for acceptance, however, is not the only motivation for internalizing the rules. I believe that, above all else, the children like each other, and participate in the game with the understanding that everybody should be having a good time. These children had moved well beyond the stage of egocentric empathy described by Hoffman (1987), and well into the stage of having empathy for another’s feelings. Schaffer expands upon Hoffman’s theory by stating that â€Å"it is . . . when confronted by another person’s distress that a child’s prosocial tendencies become most evident† (Schaffer, 1996, p. 271). Most of the children whom I have come to view as more confident and popular seem to have internalized the rules of empathy and are able to put them into practice during the appropriate times, indicating that they have improved their social skills with their peers, not simply their ability to interact well with adults. For example, during this game it is very likely that children will fall, and, while it is not very likely that the child is hurt, most of the kids demonstrate concern for their fallen peer. After one particularly rough collision, the boy who stood up first immediately and sincerely asked the other boy if he had been hurt. Replying that he wasn’t, the other boy reciprocated by asking his friend if he had been hurt. This demonstration of prosocial skills exemplifies the awareness that is required for successful peer interaction. Conclusion As time went on, it seemed that more and more of the children were truly integrating the various codes set forth by the different situations in their lives. They began to develop a sense of empathy necessary to understand the purpose of boundaries, and they began to internalize the real rules of the game and understand how the restrictions of the game applied to their group function. This is partially due to the modulation provided by the adults. For example, I indirectly talked with the three girls about empathy, and Mary continually stressed the importance of â€Å"keeping the game going,† and, eventually, they began to demonstrate their new understanding in several ways. For instance, they tend to argue less now when they are caught breaking the rules. During the beginning stages of the game’s development, they would become very argumentative when they ran â€Å"out of bounds,† which serves as the equivalent of a â€Å"tag.† Often, they would blame the person who was chasing them for â€Å"making† them run out of bounds. Now, however, they are far more good-natured. When a player runs out of bounds now, I am often amused to witness the realization spread over his or her face. Usually, they grin and shake their heads, make a comment such as â€Å"Oh, man!† and go to their proper place as a â€Å"tagger.† This slight difference in reaction illustrates a more mature interpretation of the rules. Children who react in this manner have made a connection between their realm of understanding and the realm of the adults; they realize that the rules do not exist in order to restrict them as individuals, but to keep the game going and to help them to function more smoothly as a whole unit. The interaction itself also gave the children feedback on how to play the game. By acting, and observing the acceptable and unacceptable interactions of their peers, the children first internalized the socially acceptable ways of responding and, in turn, began to view the rules in the spirit in which they were intended, instead of interpreting them as â€Å"moral realism,† the outside edict of an adult with the power to punish (Piaget, 1932, cited in Singer & Revenson, 1996, p. 101). Mary has noted that the game proceeds far more smoothly now, and the children seem to facilitate decisions more quickly about who will be â€Å"it† at the end of the game, when there is usually some confusion. Arguments about whether somebody was tagged or not are usually less frequent now, which tells me that the children have begun to apply the rules as â€Å"something built up progressively and autonomously,† thus eliminating the â€Å"need to quarrel† (Singer & Revenson, 1996, p. 100). This increase in cooperation signifies the gradual emergence into the â€Å"codification of rules stage,† the final shift into an adult decision-making system based on the needs of the group and the individual. It seems that, while this integration of social codes is a natural occurrence, that the opportunity to negotiate and interact in a cooperative setting provided the greatest environment for the children to learn about the value of rules. When the rule came as a command to â€Å"get off the swings,† for instance it was simply an inconvenient imposition. Provided with an in-depth explanation of how their behavior might affect others, however, as well as the opportunity to improvise and test new styles of interaction, the children grew remarkably quickly. They are indeed eager to learn the system as quickly as possible, and absorb information rapidly. It seems that a host of factors, such as a wide variety of new situations, appropriate feedback, and positive reinforcement throughout development all contribute to a child’s development, allowing him/her to flourish a thoughtful, attentive, and adaptable adult. References Berk, Laura E. (2000). Child Development.Massachusetts: Allyn & Bacon. Schaffer, Rudolph H. (1999). Social Development. Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers. Singer, Dorothy G., & Revenson, Tracy A. (1996). A Piaget Primer: How a Child Thinks. New York: Plume. Thelen, Esther. (1994). The improvising infant: Learning about learning to move. A dynamic systems approach to the development of cognition and action. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press/Bradford Books. Tan, S.L. (2001, April 25). Lecture, Kalamazoo College.

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Critically discuss the distinction between quality control and quality assurance - Essay Example If the team identifies a problem in a product, it makes the quality control department stop the production of that product for the time being not only to make required changes in the product but also to ensure that the product meets the customers’ demands properly. â€Å"Quality assurance is the process of verifying or determining whether products or services meet or exceed expectations† (Kietzman 2011). It is a process-driven approach towards achieving quality which requires specific steps to identify and attain goals. Quality assurance exceeds the customer expectations through a measurable and accountable process. The quality assurance team examines and tests the product manufacturing process in order to ensure excellence in every stage of the process by identify the defects and taking appropriate steps to remove those defects. Quality control involves such actions that assess and evaluate the manufacturing process of a product, whereas quality assurance involves such activities which ensure adequacy of the product development and quality maintenance processes. Quality control team focuses on finding defects in a product in order to remove them.

ARM, Intel and the microprocessor industry in 2014 Literature review

ARM, Intel and the microprocessor industry in 2014 - Literature review Example They had a feeling that sales favored ARM as their sales did not reflect the center of the ecosystem. Some observers felt that this would result to Intel making decisive actions. Intel was famous because it had good cash flow and upgraded technology. 40% of semiconductors are classified as microprocessors that have the circuit needed for computers. The remaining 60% are used for simple processors that have specific use such as the greeting cards. Even if they are less flexible they cannot be programmed once they have been installed (Grant & Jordan, 2012, P 15). Their shares of microprocessors have been increasing and it passed 50% in the year 2010. Microprocessors are manufactured through a complex process. The leading player is the US giant Intel that produced processors through its own architecture of x86. Their processors were used in the growing segments such as manufacturing of smart phones and tablets. This increased their sales from 12% in 2010 to 22% in 2012. They also became dominants by manufacturing gadgets at low cost and chrome book that was introduced by Google. The key selling strategy of ARM was through designing gadgets that consumed little energy. This was an important aspect of gadgets that needed to utilize energy that have limited battery capacity. This strategy seemed to be a good factor for some years to come. However the emission of low battery car was being improved. Commenters had begun to take an interest in the rivalry between Intel and ARM. These were different companies with different business models. And because of this neither of the two companies was justified to continue with the spoils with the way they have been doing. The final challenge is expected in network servers where ARM chips were being displayed. There are many processors in servers that are tightly fixed together, thus become a major challenge to keep them cool for long. Low energy chips consume low energy while operating thus cutting down costs. In the

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Newspaper article - Essay Example Interruptions in the flow of trade in the area would have a grave impact on international economic activity, endangering the norms which have secured relatively peaceful relations in the region. In November of 2013, the National Bureau of Asian Research (NBR) and the Henry M. Jackson Foundation gathered policy experts to discuss the overlapping claims in the South China Sea and consider the impact of US policy in the area (Schwartz, 2014). The participants pointed out the relevance of gathering more data to establish the features of the South China Sea, and therefore settle the issues of these overlapping claims. The NBR also assessed the implications of the US decision not to support the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea in relation to options in supporting the favorable results for the disputes (Schwartz, 2014). In relation to US impact in Asia, it must seek to reduce the possibility of conflict in the region by securing support for the rule of law and ensuring peaceful resolution of conflicting claims. There are about 100 territorial features which have been recognized in the South China Sea and since problems of sovereignty impact all the countries which have the right to exploit the possible beneficial resources for each feature, the stakes are high (Beckman and Schofield, 2014). The UNCLOS where all parties are members indicate the international standard in establishing ownership of the territorial waters as well as the exclusive economic zones using coastline qualities and related features. There are different features to be considered in this case: islands, low-tide elevations, rocks, submerged features, and artificial islands (Beckman and Schofield, 2014). Such features are identified based on their status during high and low tides, including their ability to support human or economic exploitation. Other features indicate various territorial benefits, including territorial

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Maximlianus as conscientious objector - Assignment Example The main change that came in society owing to the torture and killings that ensued after these protests brought in a major change in the society where people became aware of the injustice and wrong being done to others whom they ignored till then. The result was a massive awareness and movement to eradicate mention of violence in Christianity. As it is, it was pretty disgraceful to have violence become a part of Christianity even though it had to be through the conscientious efforts of Maximlianus. Therefore, we credit a major chunk of the educated and elite class shunning elements of torture and oppression to avoid recurrence of such violence in the history of Christianity to the efforts of Maximlianus.Islam and Christianity have both violent histories. What stories from Kurlansky can we find hope for a non-violent Christianity and Islam? (2 pages)Kurlansky runs a complete thesis in the context of trying to understand why and where non-violence went amiss in the glorious pasts of le ading religions of the world. Everybody understands that Christianity and Islam have had violence in their histories. But when we study the thesis brought forward by Kurlansky, we see that he has found the precise literary and scholarly articles to show why the religions could not enjoy peaceful histories. Let us begin by Buddha’s teachings of non-violence (BPF, 13). Buddhism has a non-violent history owing to the dictates of patience, love and perseverance. Kurlansky, instead of lifting ideals from the peaceful religions.

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RAIL TRACK DESIGN FOR LINE SPEED IMPROVEMENT - Essay Example The design issue under consideration includes route surveying, track component identification, designing the rail curve and other design aspects that help in improving rail transport. Suggestion indicated can be implemented by any train organization seeking to improve or optimize there services (Mundrey, 1993). Rail tracks are used for the guidance of trains, and consist of two steel rails laid in parallel. The rails guide the train in motion without the need for steering. The rails are laid on sleepers. The sleeper are also referred to as the cross ties. The sleepers are embedded in the ballast and form the rail road track. The rails are fastened to the sleeper by the use of spikes, lag screws, bolts clips and pandrol clips. The type of fastening sleepers depends on the type of sleepers. For the concrete sleepers clips are used, for the wooden sleepers' spikes are used and for steel sleepers, bolts are commonly used. Convectional rail design involved route surveying and finding the most economical route for the rail line. The engineer worked on ways of designing the rail so as to surpass the geographical obstacles (Engineering Policy Group (EPG). 2009). Currently rail design encompasses many design aspects. These design aspect results from the need for greater speeds and heavy loads. Due to these factors, the most important consideration for the rail design are: Route surveying. This involves planning the rail routes so that it passes through the most economical route (Hickerson, 1967). Long term traffic levels; if the projection shows that in the long run the traffic will increase. Design consideration for expansion of the rail as well as incorporating trains with high speed and heavy should be taken into consideration. Environmental concern: the design should focus on an environmental friendly rail that does not damage the environment. Politics: Government influences and funding greatly affect the quality of the rail and also its long term benefits. Land issues; when designing for increased speed, huge curves are required; the constraining factor to this is the limitation of land. Economic factors: this determines the type of rail constructed. Well funded projects can archive most of the design requirements. Design of The track bed The rails are laid on a bed of stones, ballast is commonly used. The bed is comprised of the following major layers; The subsoil: this is the natural ground in which the rail is to be laid. The sub grade: this comprises of compacted soil. The compaction and removal of clay from this layer prevents the expansion and compression preventing the sinking of the rail which damages this track. The soils used in this layer must not expand or compress due to water absorption. Compression of the soil also helps is preventing the infiltration of water and clay. Blanket: this is a layer of stone dust or sand, it is mixed with impervious plastic. The layer prevents the upward infiltration of clay and water which may destroy the rails. Ballast: This is a layer of stone. The type of stone used and the grade of the ballast determine its load bearing

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Communication and conflict Essay Example for Free

Communication and conflict Essay Communication is important, as it is the medium of conveying message, forming the first interface in method of conflict resolution. Communication is almost always within the context of culture, and culture determines the significance of words as well as gestures and non-verbal expressions, affording people with choices of high context or low context communication, depending upon their cultural maturity and ability to handle multi-culturalism and accommodate a range of opinions and ideas other than those familiar to them (Grosse, 2002). During the initial phase of cultural familiarity, communication takes place at low context, meaning that people rely more on direct verbal communication, which is more or less literal in nature. As the cultural relationship progresses, communication interaction moves ahead on continuum to become high context, and it becomes more interpersonal and contextual, minimizing chances of misunderstanding and confusion. 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Discussion on mediation and skills in conflict resolution Effective communication strategies are keys to resolve conflict by providing channels that provide expression of grievances and bring conflicting parties together. In the field of conflict management, communication strategies help through the channels of 1. Negotiation: Negotiation has emerged as an important form of conflict management within organizational and social setups. As such research in communication theory in conflict management has started to pay close attention to communication behaviors, types and strategies towards successful negotiation. Negotiation, as a part of managing conflict, requires interested parties to trade proposals for settlement that include, out of court settlements, business contracts, collective bargaining contract etc (Womack, 1990, 32). As Womack further elaborates, generally the process of negotiation proceeds through motives that are both competitive and cooperative. The approach of communication in the entire process of negotiation is concerned with the messages that are transferred among negotiators and the concerned parties. Communication intervenes in the process of negotiation through its both verbal and nonverbal forms and constitutes the entire base on which the goals and terms of the bargain are negotiated. Communication plays the central role in not only developing the relationship among the parties in conflict, but also in determining its direction. It is also central in every form of bargaining process, whether the bargaining is done for organizational form of conflict management, involves conflict resolution, negotiation on legal agreements or for negotiation in inter-group an intra group conflict. The entire role of communication in negotiation processes and strategies is quite vast and it ranges from defining the conflict issues, selection and implementation of strategies to presenting and defending the viable alternatives and finally helping in reaching on a solution (Womack, 1990, 35). 2. Third party intervention: Third party intervention in conflict situation is a tricky and challenging situation. It is considered as one of those areas that offers real test to the communication skills of the intervening person. Although mediation requires a neutral and third party to bring the disputants on the resolving chairs and solve the conflict, the mediator per se, has no authority and commanding power to force the parties into acquiescing to an agreement. At the best, the mediator can use persuasive and convincing dialogues through which the involved parties voluntarily agree to reach at accord through advises, admonishments, ideas, and views of the mediator and break into meaningful dialogue with each other (Burrel, 1990, 54). Its easy to see that this entire procedure requires very high level of communication skills on the part of the mediator to successfully negotiate agreement among the conflicting parties. According to Burrel, one of the important communication skills in third party intervention is the ability to collect as much information as possible on the cause, background, and nature of conflict as well as on all the parties and individuals that are involved in the conflict. Burrel informs that an effective communication strategy to gather information is question-asking within a variety of communication approaches, some for example being, employment interviews, initial interactions and parent-child discourses, although there has been insignificant research on role of particular types of questions in mediation itself. However, it is established beyond question that the questioning abilities of a third party mediator are very important in striking a collaborative approach to the entire process of conflict management.

Operational difference Essay Example for Free

Operational difference Essay Both McDonalds Corporations and Burger King Corporation operate in the highly competitive and growing fast food industry. In a fierce battle to capture market share both companies operate in an environment of tight controls and clearly defined operations strategies. While McDonalds has opted to offer a standardized product to its customers, Burger King has attempted to capture market share by offering its customers the flexibility to customize. The advertising slogans, Have It Your Way by Burger King vs We Do It All For You by McDonalds explains the difference in production methods. Therefore, the operational strategy has direct implications on the process flow, the output, the human resource management and the bottom line of each company. McDonalds uses a batch process to cook hamburgers (Exhibit A). Using a batch process means that the speed of delivery is dependent upon the speed and experience of the individual worker. Hamburgers are cooked on a large platen, in batches of up to twelve. Two or more batches may be on the platen at one time, in various stages of cooking. This means that a worker is required to manage the grill exclusively during rush hours. The hamburgers are hand-seared after 20 seconds on the grill, turned at 60 seconds, and pulled at 100 seconds. While the hamburgers are cooking, buns are toasted (55 seconds) the crown of the bun is dressed and condiments are added. When the hamburgers come off the grill, workers complete the hamburger as per the pre-defined guidelines, wrap and shelve them in the bin. If there are two batches going in different stages of cooking, speed is essential to keep the production moving For years, McDonald’s and Burger King (BK) have been the world’s two largest and most successful fast food chains. Both have battled out all these years over their operational differences which form the core of their corporate culture. The â€Å"Doing It All For You† (McDonald’s) vs. â€Å"Having It Your Way† (BK’s) stems from their respective production methods. McDonald’s â€Å"Made to Stock† vs. BK’s â€Å"Made to Order† also originate from the differences in their respective processes. Exhibits 1 and 2 show the Process Flow Diagrams (PFDs) of McDonald’s and BK respectively. Exhibit 3 provides a detailed comparative analysis of the PFDs of these two fast food chains. The main operational difference between McDonald’s and BK is that McDonald’s cooks their hamburgers on grills using a â€Å"batch process† (a batch of upto 12 patties/grill) with human intervention to turn, sear, and pull. BK uses the machine based – Continuous Chain Broiler assembly process (8 burgers/meat chain) for the production of their burgers – similar to an assembly line in a manufacturing process thus, requiring no human intervention. For a â€Å"made to stock† process, it requires burgers in bulk and hence the batch process in McDonald’s. Whereas, for a â€Å"made to order† process, it requires an assembly chain process where meat patties are placed at one end and after 80 seconds they come out the other end, cooked – one by one. Also, since BK harps on â€Å"make to order† process, it requires a semi-finished inventory – Steam Table in which mated buns and patties sit for 10 minutes and then discarded. In McDonald’s â€Å"continuous process† there is no such inventory and all the buns and patties are mated during the assembly process following the dressing. It should be noted that mating of the buns and patties before the assembly process in BK is a result of BK’s variety of menu. Whoppers and Burgers both are of different sizes and hence the mating before assembly process. McDonald’s menu† less product more often†.

Business Essays Entrepreneur Education Natural

Business Essays Entrepreneur Education Natural Entrepreneur Education Natural Introduction The intention of this paper is to discuss whether entrepreneurs are born, that is, they have inherent, natural in-born endowments to become and succeed as entrepreneurs or they are the products of the art and the science of entrepreneurship that they have been taught in schools and colleges. This, of course, is not a new controversy; it has been debated for a long time and by different people from different backgrounds. Some aspects of this debate are discussed below in the review of the literature on the subject. It is tempting, no doubt, to follow in this matter of the debate too, Alexander Pope’s advice on the forms of government and get on with a discussion and analysis of the concept and implications of entrepreneurship without tarrying to find an answer to the query whether entrepreneurship is a god-given attribute or a man-made artefact. However, it is found prudent and even somewhat necessary in the matter of discussing the topic of this essay, to follow the sage dictum attributed to the amiable character, Sir Roger de Coverly of Addison’s Essays, that â€Å"much may be said on both sides of the question† . Much indeed can be said about the qualities of entrepreneurship being implanted in a person by Nature herself as in the case of Sir Alan Sugar in UK or Ophrah Winfry in USA. And much also can be said to counter this view with many examples of outstanding ‘entrepreneurial’ achievement by college-educated ‘entrepreneurs’. In a few paragraphs below we verify these points of view with some select appropriate examples. Entrepreneurs by natural endowments The US is a land of entrepreneurs. ‘From Benjamin Franklin to Ben Jerry, William Penn to Bill Gates, Eli Whitney to Oprah Winfrey, famous entrepreneurs, both historical and contemporary, offer insight and inspiration through their stories’. The discoverers of the American continent themselves were ‘entrepreneurs’ of a high calibre. It is not necessary to take any stand on a dispute whether it was Christopher Columbus or Amerigo Vespucci who discovered America, for both of them were in-born entrepreneurs. The hall-mark of an entrepreneur commonly accepted by ‘economist writers’ on the subject is the propensity of the person to start and manage an enterprise, with great risk and uncertainty being constant, in-built companions as it were, of the enterprise from the very moment of its commencement and later all throughout its journey towards achievement – a kind of risk incorporating within itself the possibility of losing one’s name, reputation, may be one’s entire wealth and friends, and even life itself. Cassen remarks that: â€Å"According to Cantillon the entrepreneur is a specialist in taking on risk. He insures workers by buying their products (their labor services) for resale before consumers have indicated how much they are willing to pay for them. The workers receive an assured income, while the entrepreneur bears the risk caused by price fluctuations in consumer markets. This idea was refined by the U.S. economist Frank H. Knight, who distinguished between risk, which is insurable, and uncertainty, which is not. Risk relates to recurring events whose relative frequency is known from past experience, while uncertainty relates to unique events whose probability can only be subjectively estimated† (Casson). Knight is said to have postulated that while the entrepreneurs can lay off risks much like insurance companies do (with their ‘law of large numbers’), they have to bear the uncertainties themselves. They are prepared to do this because the profit of the enterprise compensates them for the psychological costs involved. Casson goes on to say that Joseph Schumpeter took a different approach, emphasizing the role of innovation. â€Å"According to Schumpeter, the entrepreneur is someone who carries out new combinations by such things as introducing new products or processes, identifying new export markets or sources of supply, or creating new types of organization. Schumpeter presented a heroic vision of the entrepreneur as someone motivated by the dream and the will to found a private kingdom; the will to conquer: the impulse to fight, to prove oneself superior to others; and the joy of creating.(Casson) This ‘dream and vision’ attribute of a Schumpeterian entrepreneur to found a ‘private kingdom’ all his own seems to be a latter day echo of Marx-Engel’s version of the entrepreneur (‘the bourgeois’), ‘who cannot exist without constantly revolutionizing the instruments of production and creating such an abundance of wealth, to get rid of which â€Å"he is in search for new markets by conquest and/or by the more thorough exploitation of the old ones†. â€Å"The need of a constantly expanding market for its products chases the bourgeoisie over the whole surface of the globe. It must nestle everywhere, settle everywhere, establish connections everywhere† (Marx Engels). The burden of the argument in this paragraph has been that an entrepreneur is a person who takes the risks of failure of an enterprise and by analogy enjoys the benefits from its success. The proclivity to take risk and accept its consequences either for good or bad is largely a natural inclination, and not come by from pouring over voluminous pages of treatises on management. That entrepreneurship is inborn is exemplified by the life history of the famous Sir Alan Sugar. As the story of his life well known, it does not merit repetition here. But what does merit mention here is the overwhelming substantiation of the proposition that entrepreneurial talents are inborn and not induced by school or college learning in a survey conducted by the Northeastern Universitys School of Technological Entrepreneurship. Leslie Taylor reports that according to the survey conducted by the School, â€Å"nearly two-thirds of entrepreneurs claim they were inspired to start their own companies by their innate desire and determination, rather than by their education or work experience. Only 1 percent of more than 200 U.S. entrepreneurs surveyed cited higher education as a significant motivator toward starting their own venture, while 61 percent cited their innate drive. Other motivators cited were work experience (21 percent) and success of entrepreneurial peers within their industry (16 percent). Thirty-three percent of respondents launched their first venture between the ages of  18 and 30; 13 percent between 30 and 40; and only 12 percent started their first business after the age of 40† (Taylor). The Survey also shed some light on the psychological trait of ‘risk’ on which a heavy weight has been laid in the context of entrepreneurship. The survey found that â€Å"that the majority of entrepreneurs were confident about the success of their first venture. Thirty-two percent said they had no fear that their venture would not succeed, while 42 percent had some fear but characterized themselves as confident. Only 14 percent said they experienced significant fear that their first venture would fail, while 12 percent said fear of failure delayed their leap into entrepreneurship† (Taylor). The survey findings are significant in so far as they indicate that the innate desire to become an entrepreneur cannot generally be taught; however, what may be called ‘the entrepreneurship skills’ can be taught, to a consideration of which I turn now. Skills required for an entrepreneur It has been mentioned above the entrepreneurship requires certain skills. In this section I propose to discuss some of the skills usually considered as being necessary for one to become a successful entrepreneur. It is a truism to say that getting a business off the ground successfully requires a combination of a sound business concept, skill, effort, and timing. Apart from the purely idiosyncratically individualistic factors that may motivate one to launch oneself as an entrepreneur, it has been noted that successful entrepreneurs normally have a number of similar skills and characteristics. Colette Henry et al citing Hisrich and Peters (1998) categorize the various skills required by entrepreneurs as follows. â€Å"Technical skills: includes written and oral communication, technical management and organizing skills. Business management skills: includes planning, decision-making, marketing and accounting skills. Personal entrepreneurial skills: includes inner control, innovation, risk taking and innovation. In addition, Hisrich and Peters (1998) stress that the development of particular skills, namely inner control, risk taking, innovativeness, being change oriented, persistence and visionary leadership, differentiates an entrepreneur from a manager† (Henry 2005). Specifically these skills include, first the â€Å"Product/expertise†, that is to say, in order to start, survive and flourish, all businesses need a product that is in demand. The would-be entrepreneur needs to have the know-how and industry-specific knowledge of product or service he or she is proposing to provide. He/she should examine what is unique about them, about their product or service, and the experience they have gained throughout their career; and how they can present all these to potential clients so that they see the value of what the entrepreneurs have to offer. Strong motivation to achieve is an essential â€Å"skill† for an entrepreneur. Working for oneself requires a great amount of dedication, discipline and drive. One must be able to get to work every morning without the support frame-work of a demanding boss or hustling co-workers to keep one going. Another skill requirement is that of marketing and sales. However much one is competent technically, one will have to market and sell oneself. This requires a large measure of self-confidence not just in one’s technical skills but in one’s ability to find and land assignments as well. It will be necessary to get potential clients to believe that one is the best person for this task even before one will get a chance to show off one’s technical competence. It is essential for one to have the confidence that he or she is the person who can deliver the special product that meets their customers needs. ‘Integrity and follow-through’ is another skill that is indispensable for an entrepreneur to succeed. The commitments and promises made to the consumers should be fulfilled honestly and promptly at or before the time when they have been promised to be done and according to the promised quality specifications. Any deviation from such promises should be made known to the client well in advance, in any case before the deadline arrives. This skill is an important key in building a successful business practice because a happy and satisfied class of customers help to build and enlarge the domain of one’s business. Another skill required is communication skills. Oral and written communication skills are required for networking, marketing, sales presentations, project proposals, project/client management and documentation of the finished product. If one is unable to convey thoughts clearly and concisely in conversation and in writing, it is apt to reduce one’s effectiveness as a professional. Associated with the communication skills that a would-be-entrepreneur is expected to have, are the interpersonal skills that he/she should posses. The ability to work with people at all levels of authority and status and all types of persons within one’s company is considered a critical requirement for success in getting projects and doing them in a timely manner. Another required skill is professionalism. The dictum that first impressions are important is to be taken as a statement of fact, because first impressions do really count. It will do a lot of good to the company if the entrepreneur’s appearance and behaviour make a terrific statement about the high quality of work they can expect from the company. An entrepreneur’s appearance is part of his or her marketing package. They should avoid giving people reasons to complain or think less of them. That an entrepreneur should have a healthy relationship with money sounds like ‘carrying coal to Newcastle’ because the popular perception is that he or she is out there to make money. It need not be so, because the ‘attitude to money’ is a ‘skill’ that has to be inculcated. Money is one of the means for living well; it should not be the â€Å"be-all-and-end-all† of business. ‘If youve started your business just for the money, you may at some point find yourself hating what you do and feeling trapped’ is a verifiable statement. Prudence would dictate that a business person should treat the money that flows through his or her business with respect or hire someone reliable who will do this for them. Planning skills is yet another skill expected of an entrepreneur. Apart from planning out how to tackle the technical problems of the project, the entrepreneur will need to provide time-estimates for pricing quotes to get business and plan his or her days and weeks effectively to meet the delivery schedule they have committed to. A skill that is important for an entrepreneur is the ‘problem solving skill’. An entrepreneur has to tackle many problems in different shapes and sizes. Right from the classical days of Cantillon, the capacity for judgement has been reckoned as a necessary skill for an entrepreneur. If one furrows the business area as a ‘lone wolf’, one may not have a colleague around to bounce ideas off or a buddy in the next cubicle for quick answers. One has to handle the challenges on one’s own with the resources available, and with the skills that one has been naturally endowed with and also with the skills acquired from one’s years of learning of the art and science of entrepreneurship from schools and colleges (4D Consulting Center). The presumption here is that the skills of an entrepreneur listed in this paragraph can be taught in schools and imbibed by discerning students. This aspect of the matter, that is, whether these skills and qualities can really be taught is examined in the section immediately following this. In the subsequent sections detailed analysis and discussion of the different programmes and content of entrepreneurial education and training are proposed to be made. In the course of discussion of these aspects of education and training, it is also proposed to incorporate a review of the literature pertaining to the specific topic of discussion in that section. Can entrepreneurship really be taught? Can entrepreneurship really be taught is a question that is still debated among some academicians and also practitioners of the ‘profession’. But disregarding the debate, entrepreneurship education has been offered by educational institutions and been a sought-after course of study by many people over the last couple of decades (Sexton et al., 1997). Some countries have developed courses in â€Å"what can be broadly termed the field of enterprise and entrepreneurship education in schools and colleges† (Gibb 1993b). In the UK, for instance, specific kinds of programmes regarding the â€Å"concept of enterprise† sponsored by both the public and private sectors were developed in the 1980s (Gibb 1993b). At the university level, under the Enterprise in Higher Education Initiative, courses were hammered out for training in â€Å"interpersonal† and â€Å"enterprising† skills. It was realised that general skills, on their own, were probably not sufficient for developing entrepreneurial traits. Gibb has pointed out that, in order to avoid confusion, it is particularly important â€Å"to clarify notions of the relationship between enterprise, entrepreneurship, business skills and personal transferable skills in developing an approach to entrepreneurship education† (Gibb, 2000). In one of his previous works Gibb has differentiated between entrepreneurship, enterprising behaviour and small business management (Gibb 1987a). He defined the entrepreneur in terms of attributes, and the small business manager in terms of tasks. In the US, entrepreneurship education is provided not only by the universities, but also by private consultants and trade associations (Sexton et al 1997); and their contribution in the area of entrepreneurship education has been on the increase in recent times. In addition, research in the area is growing (Gibb 2000). Research has been particularly on the increase at empirical levels in the areas of educational process and structure (Gorman et al 1997). Gorman and colleagues also report that their findings indicate that entrepreneurship can be taught, or if not taught, at least developed by entrepreneurship education. This is in conformity with the findings of a survey in which US University professors were of an overwhelmingly consensus view that entrepreneurship can be taught (Vespers 1982). The same view was found to prevail among a group of 408 entrepreneurship students in Ontario, Canada, who believed that the majority of entrepreneurial traits and abilities can be taught, with abilities seen as being more teachable than traits (Kantor 1988). An important opinion that has been expressed is that entrepreneurship being both a ‘science and an art’, it is possible to teach the ‘science’ part of it because it involves skills of the business management job amenable to be taught through the conventional pedagogical approach, while the ‘art’ part, which relates to the inherent and innovative attributes of entrepreneurship, does not appear to be teachable in the same way (Jack and Anderson 1998). A similar view is expressed by others, Saee (1996) for instance, who suggest that some individuals are naturally talented, whilst others must work hard to achieve the same kind of objectives. Saee is of the view that a curriculum cannot create an entrepreneur, rather it can only demonstrate the process necessary for being successful. The individual will always be responsible for their own success (Saee (1996). This distinction between the ‘science’ and ‘art’ of entrepreneurship seems to have stood in the way of developing a holistic programme of entrepreneurship education. Collette Henry et al say that these critics see â€Å"science as something that is selective, analytical, sequential and fixed while they describe art as generative, provocative, jumping and without constraint. While they do not suggest that the essence or art of entrepreneurship is completely unteachable, they propose that this area has been largely neglected by those involved in delivering entrepreneurship and business courses† (Henry, Colette et al). It is incumbent on schools and colleges to develop ‘teachable modules’ of entrepreneurial attributes, incorporating in them the ‘science’ and the teachable part of the ‘art’ of the profession. â€Å"The challenge for entrepreneurship teachers and trainers†, say Henry et al, â€Å"is to find innovative learning methods that coincide with the requirements of potential entrepreneurs† (Henry et al). Training and instruction in entrepreneurship, either in its ‘science’ component or its ‘arts’ component, or in both need not be confined to schools and colleges. They can be done through ‘on-the-job methods’ as has been demonstrated by the Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Company (3M). The 3M Company is 106 years old as of 2008, but is still leading the list of world’s top-ranking ‘innovative’ companies. Innovation, as explained above is a distinguishing mark of entrepreneurship. If a metaphor can be used here: ‘innovation is in the blood of the 3M company’. The first tenet of the company is that from the chief executive on down, the company must be committed to innovation. It is acknowledged that in the present age innovation is impossible without a broad base of technology. 3M claims to have leading know-how in 42 diverse technologies. That allows researchers to take an idea from one realm and apply it to another (Arndt). In earlier times 3M’s innovation success relied on long-term, individually directed exploratory research projects. Now it is usually the result of team work. One such team work project is called the Lead User System, which has reliably produced profitable new products, services and strategies for 3M. â€Å"It does this at a rate that beats the natural odds. Lead User Teams are made up of four to six individuals with a diverse set of skills from both technical and marketing areas. Depending on its focus, a team may have members from procurement, manufacturing or any other functional area. All team members are taught techniques for creating profitable solutions to unarticulated customer needs, well in advance of the competition. Lead User Teams are told to welcome ambiguity and uncertainty. They are taught to set their sights on exploring the areas where the possibilities for discovery are greatest because the pre-existing knowledge is most slim. The teams must learn to recognize these gaps in understanding as prime locations for generating new products and concepts. The teams are shown how to seek, value and protect ideas that don’t reflect business as usual, be it new technologies, applications, strategic relationships, channel partnerships, or service offerings. Team members start by getting acquainted with what we don’t know; they then work to increase their knowledge base at a greatly accelerated pace, primarily through their contacts with ‘Lead Users’ and ‘Lead User Experts.’ The Lead User System achieves success by approaching innovation in a disciplined way. The teams go through a set of phases, retrieving information from specific sources and then collaborating with these sources to create new products, services and strategies† (Shor, Rita). From the discussion in this section, it is clear that that it is possible to teach the skills, the ‘scientific’ nuances and even aspects of the ‘art’ of entrepreneurship, and that it can be done in schools and colleges and also outside them. Teaching Entrepreneurial Skills Colette Henry and colleagues specify at least four circumstances that have compelled, so to say, entrepreneurs and even others who have something to do with business and the economy to familiarise themselves with the tenets of ‘entrepreneurial/business’ theory. They say: â€Å"At the global level, the reduction of trade barriers and the reality of the Euro currency, together with the advancements in telecommunications, technology and transportation, all combine to provide more opportunities, as well as more uncertainty in the world. At the societal level, privatisation, deregulation, new forms of governance, mounting environmental concerns and the growing recognition of the rights of minority groups are all presenting society with greater complexity and uncertainty. At the organisational level, decentralisation, downsizing, re-engineering, strategic alliances, mergers and the growing demand for flexibility in the workforce, all contribute to an uncertain climate. Finally, at the individual level, the individual is now faced with a wider variety of employment options, the probability of ending up with a portfolio of jobs, more responsibility at work and more stress. Given the above, it is apparent that, at all levels, there will be a greater need for people to have entrepreneurial skills and abilities to enable them to deal with lifes current challenges and an uncertain future. Furthermore, whatever their career choice or personal situation, individuals, will be able to benefit from learning an innovative approach to problem solving; adapting more readily to change; becoming more self-reliant and developing their creativity through the study of entrepreneurship. There is no doubt that in any economic climate such learning could have far reaching benefits for society. It could be argued, therefore, that the need for entrepreneurship education and training has never been greater than now† (Henry, Colette et al). The consensus arrived at on â€Å"the need for entrepreneurship education and training has never been greater† has not percolated to the particulars of organising this kind of education and training. For instance, for Gorman et al (1997) the ‘educational objectives, subject matter and pedagogical approach might be expected to vary depending on the nature of the target audience’, while for others such as McMullan and Long (1987), Monroy (1995), OGorman and Cunningham (1997) and others the training needs of an individual will vary according to the particular stage of development of the enterprise such as awareness, pre- start-up, start-up, growth and maturity. A three-category framework for organising entrepreneurship education has been put forward by Jamieson (1984). His categorisation is in terms of â€Å"education about enterprise, education for enterprise and education in enterprise†. The role that education has to play in threes three categories is different. In the first category, education about enterprise, education has to deal mostly with awareness creation, provide information on the various aspects of setting up and running a business mostly from a theoretical perspective. The business and related modules in this category at all levels of collegiate education seek â€Å"to foster skills, attitudes and values appropriate to starting, owning, managing or working in a successful business enterprise† (Jamieson, 1984). Jamieson’s second category, education for enterprise, is concerned with providing the would-be entrepreneurs for a self-employment career, with the intellectual tools specific to setting up and run their own business. ‘Participants are taught the practical skills required for small business set-up and management, and the courses are often geared towards the preparation of a business plan.’ The third category, education in enterprise, is designed for imparting management training to established entrepreneurs and focuses on ensuring the growth and future development of the business. Management development and growth training programmes, and also specific product development and marketing courses, are in this category. Training in this category also provides skills and knowledge for people to create their own futures and solve their own problems (Jamieson, 1984,). Garavan and OCinneide (1994) emphasise more on the education and training for small business entrepreneurs, classifying the type of training that they might receive into three categories, which relate specifically to the particular stage of development. The first of these is termed small ‘business awareness education’ and is normally found in secondary school syllabi. The objective of this type of training is to encourage people to consider small business as a career option. The second category describes education and training for owners of small business, its aim being to provide practical help to those seeking to change over to self-employment. The content of training here would include instruction on raising finance, marketing the product and matters of legal issues. The third kind of education and training in respect of small business is meant to enable people to enhance and update their skills. The content of entrepreneurship programmes Entrepreneurship educators have identified that there are two objectives of entrepreneurship education programmes, which are 1) to increase the awareness and understanding of the process involved in starting and, 2) managing a new business, as well as to increase students awareness of small business ownership as a serious career option. At the initial stage of entrepreneurial development the need is to inculcate, as far as it is feasible, a sense of readiness and capability to venture into the realm of entrepreneurship. Instruction at this stage, therefore, should provide opportunities to act in an ‘entrepreneurial’ manner, as well as an exposure to several real-life entrepreneurs (Cox 1996). Life-history of truly successful entrepreneurs might serve as a ‘guiding-star’ in the students’ journey towards reaping the benefits of entrepreneurship. The song of the poet that â€Å"Lives of great men remind us/ We can make our lives sublime/.And, departing, leave behind us Footprints on the sands of time† (Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, 1807-1882) should be made to resound in their mind frequently. The main focus of training at the start-up stage should be to intensify students resolve to become entrepreneurs. Accordingly instructional emphasis should be on the development of a viable business plan which should be supported by individualised assistance in the form of financing, networking, or counselling. It is advisable to assist the students in developing their personal characteristics of leadership; promoting and strengthening their willingness to invest a significant portion of their savings or net worth to get their business started; inculcating and hardening their confidence in themselves and their abilities to sustain themselves in business, if or when things get tough; prodding them to make their own decisions; advising them to adjust their standard of living at a lower level, if necessary, until their business is firmly established; to acquire the traits of a team-player and be willing to commit themselves to long hours of work to make their business work. Hisrich and Peters (1998) examined entrepreneurship programmes from the students perspective. The students were found to be keen to have in the course content the essentials of marketing, finance, operations planning, organisation planning and venture launch planning. They also wished to include as an essential part of the Course all information concerned with obtaining resources. To find out topics considered to be most important by prospective students, Le Roux and Nieuwenhuizen (1996) conducted a survey of 220 aspiring entrepreneurs. Their survey revealed that the main areas of interest were practically the same as those mentioned by Hisrich and Peters (1998) and included marketing, entrepreneurship, business planning, management and financial management. From the discussion in this section, it is apparent that the content of the a course on entrepreneurship need to include topics considered as being relevant to the ‘science’ part of the discipline as also those that would serve to enhance the ‘art’ component of the discipline. In the following section, I propose to discuss the methods of teaching entrepreneurship. Methods of teaching entrepreneurship The literature on the learning methods employed in entrepreneurship education and training programmes mentions a variety of methods, including lectures, video presentations and handouts, case study-based learning, seminars, group discussion and role-plays. Additionally, mention is also made about both traditional and non-traditional approaches to learning. Traditional methods are said to focus mainly on theory and a didactic approach and some writers are critical of their adoption as a teaching method, because in their view they are ‘inappropriate’ in the teaching of entrepreneurship (Davies and Gibb 1991). This view is endorsed by others, Young (1997) for example, who say that a theoretical approach is not relevant to teach a subject which deals almost exclusively with activity, implying that the experience and practical skills for entrepreneurs are not something that can be acquired through conventional teaching methods. Against the contention of these writers, others like Shepherd and Douglas (1996) criticise the use of the less traditional methods like ‘role play, simulation and problem solving’, arguing that, in the classroom guidelines are to be provided to promote creative entrepreneurial thinking, but the ‘modern’ methods of teaching encourage only logical thinking which is inappropria