Newspaper article Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Newspaper article - Essay Example Interruptions in the flow of trade in the area would have a grave impact on international economic activity, endangering the norms which have secured relatively peaceful relations in the region. In November of 2013, the National Bureau of Asian Research (NBR) and the Henry M. Jackson Foundation gathered policy experts to discuss the overlapping claims in the South China Sea and consider the impact of US policy in the area (Schwartz, 2014). The participants pointed out the relevance of gathering more data to establish the features of the South China Sea, and therefore settle the issues of these overlapping claims. The NBR also assessed the implications of the US decision not to support the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea in relation to options in supporting the favorable results for the disputes (Schwartz, 2014). In relation to US impact in Asia, it must seek to reduce the possibility of conflict in the region by securing support for the rule of law and ensuring peaceful resolution of conflicting claims. There are about 100 territorial features which have been recognized in the South China Sea and since problems of sovereignty impact all the countries which have the right to exploit the possible beneficial resources for each feature, the stakes are high (Beckman and Schofield, 2014). The UNCLOS where all parties are members indicate the international standard in establishing ownership of the territorial waters as well as the exclusive economic zones using coastline qualities and related features. There are different features to be considered in this case: islands, low-tide elevations, rocks, submerged features, and artificial islands (Beckman and Schofield, 2014). Such features are identified based on their status during high and low tides, including their ability to support human or economic exploitation. Other features indicate various territorial benefits, including territorial

Maximlianus as conscientious objector Assignment

Maximlianus as conscientious objector - Assignment Example The main change that came in society owing to the torture and killings that ensued after these protests brought in a major change in the society where people became aware of the injustice and wrong being done to others whom they ignored till then. The result was a massive awareness and movement to eradicate mention of violence in Christianity. As it is, it was pretty disgraceful to have violence become a part of Christianity even though it had to be through the conscientious efforts of Maximlianus. Therefore, we credit a major chunk of the educated and elite class shunning elements of torture and oppression to avoid recurrence of such violence in the history of Christianity to the efforts of Maximlianus.Islam and Christianity have both violent histories. What stories from Kurlansky can we find hope for a non-violent Christianity and Islam? (2 pages)Kurlansky runs a complete thesis in the context of trying to understand why and where non-violence went amiss in the glorious pasts of le ading religions of the world. Everybody understands that Christianity and Islam have had violence in their histories. But when we study the thesis brought forward by Kurlansky, we see that he has found the precise literary and scholarly articles to show why the religions could not enjoy peaceful histories. Let us begin by Buddha’s teachings of non-violence (BPF, 13). Buddhism has a non-violent history owing to the dictates of patience, love and perseverance. Kurlansky, instead of lifting ideals from the peaceful religions.

RAIL TRACK DESIGN FOR LINE SPEED IMPROVEMENT Essay

RAIL TRACK DESIGN FOR LINE SPEED IMPROVEMENT - Essay Example The design issue under consideration includes route surveying, track component identification, designing the rail curve and other design aspects that help in improving rail transport. Suggestion indicated can be implemented by any train organization seeking to improve or optimize there services (Mundrey, 1993). Rail tracks are used for the guidance of trains, and consist of two steel rails laid in parallel. The rails guide the train in motion without the need for steering. The rails are laid on sleepers. The sleeper are also referred to as the cross ties. The sleepers are embedded in the ballast and form the rail road track. The rails are fastened to the sleeper by the use of spikes, lag screws, bolts clips and pandrol clips. The type of fastening sleepers depends on the type of sleepers. For the concrete sleepers clips are used, for the wooden sleepers' spikes are used and for steel sleepers, bolts are commonly used. Convectional rail design involved route surveying and finding the most economical route for the rail line. The engineer worked on ways of designing the rail so as to surpass the geographical obstacles (Engineering Policy Group (EPG). 2009). Currently rail design encompasses many design aspects. These design aspect results from the need for greater speeds and heavy loads. Due to these factors, the most important consideration for the rail design are: Route surveying. This involves planning the rail routes so that it passes through the most economical route (Hickerson, 1967). Long term traffic levels; if the projection shows that in the long run the traffic will increase. Design consideration for expansion of the rail as well as incorporating trains with high speed and heavy should be taken into consideration. Environmental concern: the design should focus on an environmental friendly rail that does not damage the environment. Politics: Government influences and funding greatly affect the quality of the rail and also its long term benefits. Land issues; when designing for increased speed, huge curves are required; the constraining factor to this is the limitation of land. Economic factors: this determines the type of rail constructed. Well funded projects can archive most of the design requirements. Design of The track bed The rails are laid on a bed of stones, ballast is commonly used. The bed is comprised of the following major layers; The subsoil: this is the natural ground in which the rail is to be laid. The sub grade: this comprises of compacted soil. The compaction and removal of clay from this layer prevents the expansion and compression preventing the sinking of the rail which damages this track. The soils used in this layer must not expand or compress due to water absorption. Compression of the soil also helps is preventing the infiltration of water and clay. Blanket: this is a layer of stone dust or sand, it is mixed with impervious plastic. The layer prevents the upward infiltration of clay and water which may destroy the rails. Ballast: This is a layer of stone. The type of stone used and the grade of the ballast determine its load bearing

Q and Answers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Q and Answers - Essay Example Answer: There is a release of stress hormones within the body when a person in under stress. These include cortisol and catecholamines. These hormones are mobilizers of glucose. Under stress the glucose is released and this leads to insulin release. The insulin causes the glucose to move inside cells because of the increased levels of hormone. This can lead to hypoglycemia. This is the reason why it is a good idea to have a meal before going to the dentist so that the blood glucose level can be maintained. Answer: During trauma there is damage to the cells of the body. The energy requirement of the body increases. This increase is due to many reasons. The cell turnover rate increases hence there is increased requirement for proteins for making new cells as well as the energy requirement increases because of the additional energy required. This leads to a depletion of the body energy stores. Glycogen stored in the liver is utilized first. Gluconeogenesis also ensues to overcome the energy requirement. Hence the lipids and proteins of the body are also utilized. This accounts for the weight loss seen in trauma. Answer: Diet is very important in people who are recovering from illness. This is because during illness there is breakdown of cells in the body. When a person is recovering there is greater cell differentiation of cells and utilization of not only proteins, carbohydrates, lipids but also vitamins and minerals which are required by the body. If the diet of these patients is not monitored they can suffer from deficiency conditions of these essential nutrients. This can also compromise the immunity of the patient hence making him susceptible to infections. Therefore the diet of convalescent patients is important. Answer: Exercise is important in weight loss programs because during exercise the body utilizes initially the carbohydrate stores of the body for energy and then it also starts using the

Communication and conflict Essay Example for Free

Communication and conflict Essay Communication is important, as it is the medium of conveying message, forming the first interface in method of conflict resolution. Communication is almost always within the context of culture, and culture determines the significance of words as well as gestures and non-verbal expressions, affording people with choices of high context or low context communication, depending upon their cultural maturity and ability to handle multi-culturalism and accommodate a range of opinions and ideas other than those familiar to them (Grosse, 2002). During the initial phase of cultural familiarity, communication takes place at low context, meaning that people rely more on direct verbal communication, which is more or less literal in nature. As the cultural relationship progresses, communication interaction moves ahead on continuum to become high context, and it becomes more interpersonal and contextual, minimizing chances of misunderstanding and confusion. However, in cases where the entire cultural paradigms are set in low context or high context communication patterns, cultural crossover becomes a difficult barrier for all the involved parties. Effective cross cultural communication is centered upon knowledge, empathy and intercultural sensitivity (ibid). The correct approach in such cases is be flexible, adaptable and receptive to all views, no matter how contrary or incongruous they appear. A successful cross cultural communication situation demands coming over these contradictions and differences in opinion to form a harmonious vision. A positive and patient listening attitude is also valuable as it allows people to fathom emotions of others and makes them perceptible to alternate view points. Finally, the most important attribute in cross cultural communication is recognition that every culture is correct in its own context and each has to yield some ground to reach a harmonious consensus (ibid). Discussion on mediation and skills in conflict resolution Effective communication strategies are keys to resolve conflict by providing channels that provide expression of grievances and bring conflicting parties together. In the field of conflict management, communication strategies help through the channels of 1. Negotiation: Negotiation has emerged as an important form of conflict management within organizational and social setups. As such research in communication theory in conflict management has started to pay close attention to communication behaviors, types and strategies towards successful negotiation. Negotiation, as a part of managing conflict, requires interested parties to trade proposals for settlement that include, out of court settlements, business contracts, collective bargaining contract etc (Womack, 1990, 32). As Womack further elaborates, generally the process of negotiation proceeds through motives that are both competitive and cooperative. The approach of communication in the entire process of negotiation is concerned with the messages that are transferred among negotiators and the concerned parties. Communication intervenes in the process of negotiation through its both verbal and nonverbal forms and constitutes the entire base on which the goals and terms of the bargain are negotiated. Communication plays the central role in not only developing the relationship among the parties in conflict, but also in determining its direction. It is also central in every form of bargaining process, whether the bargaining is done for organizational form of conflict management, involves conflict resolution, negotiation on legal agreements or for negotiation in inter-group an intra group conflict. The entire role of communication in negotiation processes and strategies is quite vast and it ranges from defining the conflict issues, selection and implementation of strategies to presenting and defending the viable alternatives and finally helping in reaching on a solution (Womack, 1990, 35). 2. Third party intervention: Third party intervention in conflict situation is a tricky and challenging situation. It is considered as one of those areas that offers real test to the communication skills of the intervening person. Although mediation requires a neutral and third party to bring the disputants on the resolving chairs and solve the conflict, the mediator per se, has no authority and commanding power to force the parties into acquiescing to an agreement. At the best, the mediator can use persuasive and convincing dialogues through which the involved parties voluntarily agree to reach at accord through advises, admonishments, ideas, and views of the mediator and break into meaningful dialogue with each other (Burrel, 1990, 54). Its easy to see that this entire procedure requires very high level of communication skills on the part of the mediator to successfully negotiate agreement among the conflicting parties. According to Burrel, one of the important communication skills in third party intervention is the ability to collect as much information as possible on the cause, background, and nature of conflict as well as on all the parties and individuals that are involved in the conflict. Burrel informs that an effective communication strategy to gather information is question-asking within a variety of communication approaches, some for example being, employment interviews, initial interactions and parent-child discourses, although there has been insignificant research on role of particular types of questions in mediation itself. However, it is established beyond question that the questioning abilities of a third party mediator are very important in striking a collaborative approach to the entire process of conflict management.

Operational difference Essay Example for Free

Operational difference Essay Both McDonalds Corporations and Burger King Corporation operate in the highly competitive and growing fast food industry. In a fierce battle to capture market share both companies operate in an environment of tight controls and clearly defined operations strategies. While McDonalds has opted to offer a standardized product to its customers, Burger King has attempted to capture market share by offering its customers the flexibility to customize. The advertising slogans, Have It Your Way by Burger King vs We Do It All For You by McDonalds explains the difference in production methods. Therefore, the operational strategy has direct implications on the process flow, the output, the human resource management and the bottom line of each company. McDonalds uses a batch process to cook hamburgers (Exhibit A). Using a batch process means that the speed of delivery is dependent upon the speed and experience of the individual worker. Hamburgers are cooked on a large platen, in batches of up to twelve. Two or more batches may be on the platen at one time, in various stages of cooking. This means that a worker is required to manage the grill exclusively during rush hours. The hamburgers are hand-seared after 20 seconds on the grill, turned at 60 seconds, and pulled at 100 seconds. While the hamburgers are cooking, buns are toasted (55 seconds) the crown of the bun is dressed and condiments are added. When the hamburgers come off the grill, workers complete the hamburger as per the pre-defined guidelines, wrap and shelve them in the bin. If there are two batches going in different stages of cooking, speed is essential to keep the production moving For years, McDonald’s and Burger King (BK) have been the world’s two largest and most successful fast food chains. Both have battled out all these years over their operational differences which form the core of their corporate culture. The â€Å"Doing It All For You† (McDonald’s) vs. â€Å"Having It Your Way† (BK’s) stems from their respective production methods. McDonald’s â€Å"Made to Stock† vs. BK’s â€Å"Made to Order† also originate from the differences in their respective processes. Exhibits 1 and 2 show the Process Flow Diagrams (PFDs) of McDonald’s and BK respectively. Exhibit 3 provides a detailed comparative analysis of the PFDs of these two fast food chains. The main operational difference between McDonald’s and BK is that McDonald’s cooks their hamburgers on grills using a â€Å"batch process† (a batch of upto 12 patties/grill) with human intervention to turn, sear, and pull. BK uses the machine based – Continuous Chain Broiler assembly process (8 burgers/meat chain) for the production of their burgers – similar to an assembly line in a manufacturing process thus, requiring no human intervention. For a â€Å"made to stock† process, it requires burgers in bulk and hence the batch process in McDonald’s. Whereas, for a â€Å"made to order† process, it requires an assembly chain process where meat patties are placed at one end and after 80 seconds they come out the other end, cooked – one by one. Also, since BK harps on â€Å"make to order† process, it requires a semi-finished inventory – Steam Table in which mated buns and patties sit for 10 minutes and then discarded. In McDonald’s â€Å"continuous process† there is no such inventory and all the buns and patties are mated during the assembly process following the dressing. It should be noted that mating of the buns and patties before the assembly process in BK is a result of BK’s variety of menu. Whoppers and Burgers both are of different sizes and hence the mating before assembly process. McDonald’s menu† less product more often†.

Business Essays Entrepreneur Education Natural

Business Essays Entrepreneur Education Natural Entrepreneur Education Natural Introduction The intention of this paper is to discuss whether entrepreneurs are born, that is, they have inherent, natural in-born endowments to become and succeed as entrepreneurs or they are the products of the art and the science of entrepreneurship that they have been taught in schools and colleges. This, of course, is not a new controversy; it has been debated for a long time and by different people from different backgrounds. Some aspects of this debate are discussed below in the review of the literature on the subject. It is tempting, no doubt, to follow in this matter of the debate too, Alexander Pope’s advice on the forms of government and get on with a discussion and analysis of the concept and implications of entrepreneurship without tarrying to find an answer to the query whether entrepreneurship is a god-given attribute or a man-made artefact. However, it is found prudent and even somewhat necessary in the matter of discussing the topic of this essay, to follow the sage dictum attributed to the amiable character, Sir Roger de Coverly of Addison’s Essays, that â€Å"much may be said on both sides of the question† . Much indeed can be said about the qualities of entrepreneurship being implanted in a person by Nature herself as in the case of Sir Alan Sugar in UK or Ophrah Winfry in USA. And much also can be said to counter this view with many examples of outstanding ‘entrepreneurial’ achievement by college-educated ‘entrepreneurs’. In a few paragraphs below we verify these points of view with some select appropriate examples. Entrepreneurs by natural endowments The US is a land of entrepreneurs. ‘From Benjamin Franklin to Ben Jerry, William Penn to Bill Gates, Eli Whitney to Oprah Winfrey, famous entrepreneurs, both historical and contemporary, offer insight and inspiration through their stories’. The discoverers of the American continent themselves were ‘entrepreneurs’ of a high calibre. It is not necessary to take any stand on a dispute whether it was Christopher Columbus or Amerigo Vespucci who discovered America, for both of them were in-born entrepreneurs. The hall-mark of an entrepreneur commonly accepted by ‘economist writers’ on the subject is the propensity of the person to start and manage an enterprise, with great risk and uncertainty being constant, in-built companions as it were, of the enterprise from the very moment of its commencement and later all throughout its journey towards achievement – a kind of risk incorporating within itself the possibility of losing one’s name, reputation, may be one’s entire wealth and friends, and even life itself. Cassen remarks that: â€Å"According to Cantillon the entrepreneur is a specialist in taking on risk. He insures workers by buying their products (their labor services) for resale before consumers have indicated how much they are willing to pay for them. The workers receive an assured income, while the entrepreneur bears the risk caused by price fluctuations in consumer markets. This idea was refined by the U.S. economist Frank H. Knight, who distinguished between risk, which is insurable, and uncertainty, which is not. Risk relates to recurring events whose relative frequency is known from past experience, while uncertainty relates to unique events whose probability can only be subjectively estimated† (Casson). Knight is said to have postulated that while the entrepreneurs can lay off risks much like insurance companies do (with their ‘law of large numbers’), they have to bear the uncertainties themselves. They are prepared to do this because the profit of the enterprise compensates them for the psychological costs involved. Casson goes on to say that Joseph Schumpeter took a different approach, emphasizing the role of innovation. â€Å"According to Schumpeter, the entrepreneur is someone who carries out new combinations by such things as introducing new products or processes, identifying new export markets or sources of supply, or creating new types of organization. Schumpeter presented a heroic vision of the entrepreneur as someone motivated by the dream and the will to found a private kingdom; the will to conquer: the impulse to fight, to prove oneself superior to others; and the joy of creating.(Casson) This ‘dream and vision’ attribute of a Schumpeterian entrepreneur to found a ‘private kingdom’ all his own seems to be a latter day echo of Marx-Engel’s version of the entrepreneur (‘the bourgeois’), ‘who cannot exist without constantly revolutionizing the instruments of production and creating such an abundance of wealth, to get rid of which â€Å"he is in search for new markets by conquest and/or by the more thorough exploitation of the old ones†. â€Å"The need of a constantly expanding market for its products chases the bourgeoisie over the whole surface of the globe. It must nestle everywhere, settle everywhere, establish connections everywhere† (Marx Engels). The burden of the argument in this paragraph has been that an entrepreneur is a person who takes the risks of failure of an enterprise and by analogy enjoys the benefits from its success. The proclivity to take risk and accept its consequences either for good or bad is largely a natural inclination, and not come by from pouring over voluminous pages of treatises on management. That entrepreneurship is inborn is exemplified by the life history of the famous Sir Alan Sugar. As the story of his life well known, it does not merit repetition here. But what does merit mention here is the overwhelming substantiation of the proposition that entrepreneurial talents are inborn and not induced by school or college learning in a survey conducted by the Northeastern Universitys School of Technological Entrepreneurship. Leslie Taylor reports that according to the survey conducted by the School, â€Å"nearly two-thirds of entrepreneurs claim they were inspired to start their own companies by their innate desire and determination, rather than by their education or work experience. Only 1 percent of more than 200 U.S. entrepreneurs surveyed cited higher education as a significant motivator toward starting their own venture, while 61 percent cited their innate drive. Other motivators cited were work experience (21 percent) and success of entrepreneurial peers within their industry (16 percent). Thirty-three percent of respondents launched their first venture between the ages of  18 and 30; 13 percent between 30 and 40; and only 12 percent started their first business after the age of 40† (Taylor). The Survey also shed some light on the psychological trait of ‘risk’ on which a heavy weight has been laid in the context of entrepreneurship. The survey found that â€Å"that the majority of entrepreneurs were confident about the success of their first venture. Thirty-two percent said they had no fear that their venture would not succeed, while 42 percent had some fear but characterized themselves as confident. Only 14 percent said they experienced significant fear that their first venture would fail, while 12 percent said fear of failure delayed their leap into entrepreneurship† (Taylor). The survey findings are significant in so far as they indicate that the innate desire to become an entrepreneur cannot generally be taught; however, what may be called ‘the entrepreneurship skills’ can be taught, to a consideration of which I turn now. Skills required for an entrepreneur It has been mentioned above the entrepreneurship requires certain skills. In this section I propose to discuss some of the skills usually considered as being necessary for one to become a successful entrepreneur. It is a truism to say that getting a business off the ground successfully requires a combination of a sound business concept, skill, effort, and timing. Apart from the purely idiosyncratically individualistic factors that may motivate one to launch oneself as an entrepreneur, it has been noted that successful entrepreneurs normally have a number of similar skills and characteristics. Colette Henry et al citing Hisrich and Peters (1998) categorize the various skills required by entrepreneurs as follows. â€Å"Technical skills: includes written and oral communication, technical management and organizing skills. Business management skills: includes planning, decision-making, marketing and accounting skills. Personal entrepreneurial skills: includes inner control, innovation, risk taking and innovation. In addition, Hisrich and Peters (1998) stress that the development of particular skills, namely inner control, risk taking, innovativeness, being change oriented, persistence and visionary leadership, differentiates an entrepreneur from a manager† (Henry 2005). Specifically these skills include, first the â€Å"Product/expertise†, that is to say, in order to start, survive and flourish, all businesses need a product that is in demand. The would-be entrepreneur needs to have the know-how and industry-specific knowledge of product or service he or she is proposing to provide. He/she should examine what is unique about them, about their product or service, and the experience they have gained throughout their career; and how they can present all these to potential clients so that they see the value of what the entrepreneurs have to offer. Strong motivation to achieve is an essential â€Å"skill† for an entrepreneur. Working for oneself requires a great amount of dedication, discipline and drive. One must be able to get to work every morning without the support frame-work of a demanding boss or hustling co-workers to keep one going. Another skill requirement is that of marketing and sales. However much one is competent technically, one will have to market and sell oneself. This requires a large measure of self-confidence not just in one’s technical skills but in one’s ability to find and land assignments as well. It will be necessary to get potential clients to believe that one is the best person for this task even before one will get a chance to show off one’s technical competence. It is essential for one to have the confidence that he or she is the person who can deliver the special product that meets their customers needs. ‘Integrity and follow-through’ is another skill that is indispensable for an entrepreneur to succeed. The commitments and promises made to the consumers should be fulfilled honestly and promptly at or before the time when they have been promised to be done and according to the promised quality specifications. Any deviation from such promises should be made known to the client well in advance, in any case before the deadline arrives. This skill is an important key in building a successful business practice because a happy and satisfied class of customers help to build and enlarge the domain of one’s business. Another skill required is communication skills. Oral and written communication skills are required for networking, marketing, sales presentations, project proposals, project/client management and documentation of the finished product. If one is unable to convey thoughts clearly and concisely in conversation and in writing, it is apt to reduce one’s effectiveness as a professional. Associated with the communication skills that a would-be-entrepreneur is expected to have, are the interpersonal skills that he/she should posses. The ability to work with people at all levels of authority and status and all types of persons within one’s company is considered a critical requirement for success in getting projects and doing them in a timely manner. Another required skill is professionalism. The dictum that first impressions are important is to be taken as a statement of fact, because first impressions do really count. It will do a lot of good to the company if the entrepreneur’s appearance and behaviour make a terrific statement about the high quality of work they can expect from the company. An entrepreneur’s appearance is part of his or her marketing package. They should avoid giving people reasons to complain or think less of them. That an entrepreneur should have a healthy relationship with money sounds like ‘carrying coal to Newcastle’ because the popular perception is that he or she is out there to make money. It need not be so, because the ‘attitude to money’ is a ‘skill’ that has to be inculcated. Money is one of the means for living well; it should not be the â€Å"be-all-and-end-all† of business. ‘If youve started your business just for the money, you may at some point find yourself hating what you do and feeling trapped’ is a verifiable statement. Prudence would dictate that a business person should treat the money that flows through his or her business with respect or hire someone reliable who will do this for them. Planning skills is yet another skill expected of an entrepreneur. Apart from planning out how to tackle the technical problems of the project, the entrepreneur will need to provide time-estimates for pricing quotes to get business and plan his or her days and weeks effectively to meet the delivery schedule they have committed to. A skill that is important for an entrepreneur is the ‘problem solving skill’. An entrepreneur has to tackle many problems in different shapes and sizes. Right from the classical days of Cantillon, the capacity for judgement has been reckoned as a necessary skill for an entrepreneur. If one furrows the business area as a ‘lone wolf’, one may not have a colleague around to bounce ideas off or a buddy in the next cubicle for quick answers. One has to handle the challenges on one’s own with the resources available, and with the skills that one has been naturally endowed with and also with the skills acquired from one’s years of learning of the art and science of entrepreneurship from schools and colleges (4D Consulting Center). The presumption here is that the skills of an entrepreneur listed in this paragraph can be taught in schools and imbibed by discerning students. This aspect of the matter, that is, whether these skills and qualities can really be taught is examined in the section immediately following this. In the subsequent sections detailed analysis and discussion of the different programmes and content of entrepreneurial education and training are proposed to be made. In the course of discussion of these aspects of education and training, it is also proposed to incorporate a review of the literature pertaining to the specific topic of discussion in that section. Can entrepreneurship really be taught? Can entrepreneurship really be taught is a question that is still debated among some academicians and also practitioners of the ‘profession’. But disregarding the debate, entrepreneurship education has been offered by educational institutions and been a sought-after course of study by many people over the last couple of decades (Sexton et al., 1997). Some countries have developed courses in â€Å"what can be broadly termed the field of enterprise and entrepreneurship education in schools and colleges† (Gibb 1993b). In the UK, for instance, specific kinds of programmes regarding the â€Å"concept of enterprise† sponsored by both the public and private sectors were developed in the 1980s (Gibb 1993b). At the university level, under the Enterprise in Higher Education Initiative, courses were hammered out for training in â€Å"interpersonal† and â€Å"enterprising† skills. It was realised that general skills, on their own, were probably not sufficient for developing entrepreneurial traits. Gibb has pointed out that, in order to avoid confusion, it is particularly important â€Å"to clarify notions of the relationship between enterprise, entrepreneurship, business skills and personal transferable skills in developing an approach to entrepreneurship education† (Gibb, 2000). In one of his previous works Gibb has differentiated between entrepreneurship, enterprising behaviour and small business management (Gibb 1987a). He defined the entrepreneur in terms of attributes, and the small business manager in terms of tasks. In the US, entrepreneurship education is provided not only by the universities, but also by private consultants and trade associations (Sexton et al 1997); and their contribution in the area of entrepreneurship education has been on the increase in recent times. In addition, research in the area is growing (Gibb 2000). Research has been particularly on the increase at empirical levels in the areas of educational process and structure (Gorman et al 1997). Gorman and colleagues also report that their findings indicate that entrepreneurship can be taught, or if not taught, at least developed by entrepreneurship education. This is in conformity with the findings of a survey in which US University professors were of an overwhelmingly consensus view that entrepreneurship can be taught (Vespers 1982). The same view was found to prevail among a group of 408 entrepreneurship students in Ontario, Canada, who believed that the majority of entrepreneurial traits and abilities can be taught, with abilities seen as being more teachable than traits (Kantor 1988). An important opinion that has been expressed is that entrepreneurship being both a ‘science and an art’, it is possible to teach the ‘science’ part of it because it involves skills of the business management job amenable to be taught through the conventional pedagogical approach, while the ‘art’ part, which relates to the inherent and innovative attributes of entrepreneurship, does not appear to be teachable in the same way (Jack and Anderson 1998). A similar view is expressed by others, Saee (1996) for instance, who suggest that some individuals are naturally talented, whilst others must work hard to achieve the same kind of objectives. Saee is of the view that a curriculum cannot create an entrepreneur, rather it can only demonstrate the process necessary for being successful. The individual will always be responsible for their own success (Saee (1996). This distinction between the ‘science’ and ‘art’ of entrepreneurship seems to have stood in the way of developing a holistic programme of entrepreneurship education. Collette Henry et al say that these critics see â€Å"science as something that is selective, analytical, sequential and fixed while they describe art as generative, provocative, jumping and without constraint. While they do not suggest that the essence or art of entrepreneurship is completely unteachable, they propose that this area has been largely neglected by those involved in delivering entrepreneurship and business courses† (Henry, Colette et al). It is incumbent on schools and colleges to develop ‘teachable modules’ of entrepreneurial attributes, incorporating in them the ‘science’ and the teachable part of the ‘art’ of the profession. â€Å"The challenge for entrepreneurship teachers and trainers†, say Henry et al, â€Å"is to find innovative learning methods that coincide with the requirements of potential entrepreneurs† (Henry et al). Training and instruction in entrepreneurship, either in its ‘science’ component or its ‘arts’ component, or in both need not be confined to schools and colleges. They can be done through ‘on-the-job methods’ as has been demonstrated by the Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Company (3M). The 3M Company is 106 years old as of 2008, but is still leading the list of world’s top-ranking ‘innovative’ companies. Innovation, as explained above is a distinguishing mark of entrepreneurship. If a metaphor can be used here: ‘innovation is in the blood of the 3M company’. The first tenet of the company is that from the chief executive on down, the company must be committed to innovation. It is acknowledged that in the present age innovation is impossible without a broad base of technology. 3M claims to have leading know-how in 42 diverse technologies. That allows researchers to take an idea from one realm and apply it to another (Arndt). In earlier times 3M’s innovation success relied on long-term, individually directed exploratory research projects. Now it is usually the result of team work. One such team work project is called the Lead User System, which has reliably produced profitable new products, services and strategies for 3M. â€Å"It does this at a rate that beats the natural odds. Lead User Teams are made up of four to six individuals with a diverse set of skills from both technical and marketing areas. Depending on its focus, a team may have members from procurement, manufacturing or any other functional area. All team members are taught techniques for creating profitable solutions to unarticulated customer needs, well in advance of the competition. Lead User Teams are told to welcome ambiguity and uncertainty. They are taught to set their sights on exploring the areas where the possibilities for discovery are greatest because the pre-existing knowledge is most slim. The teams must learn to recognize these gaps in understanding as prime locations for generating new products and concepts. The teams are shown how to seek, value and protect ideas that don’t reflect business as usual, be it new technologies, applications, strategic relationships, channel partnerships, or service offerings. Team members start by getting acquainted with what we don’t know; they then work to increase their knowledge base at a greatly accelerated pace, primarily through their contacts with ‘Lead Users’ and ‘Lead User Experts.’ The Lead User System achieves success by approaching innovation in a disciplined way. The teams go through a set of phases, retrieving information from specific sources and then collaborating with these sources to create new products, services and strategies† (Shor, Rita). From the discussion in this section, it is clear that that it is possible to teach the skills, the ‘scientific’ nuances and even aspects of the ‘art’ of entrepreneurship, and that it can be done in schools and colleges and also outside them. Teaching Entrepreneurial Skills Colette Henry and colleagues specify at least four circumstances that have compelled, so to say, entrepreneurs and even others who have something to do with business and the economy to familiarise themselves with the tenets of ‘entrepreneurial/business’ theory. They say: â€Å"At the global level, the reduction of trade barriers and the reality of the Euro currency, together with the advancements in telecommunications, technology and transportation, all combine to provide more opportunities, as well as more uncertainty in the world. At the societal level, privatisation, deregulation, new forms of governance, mounting environmental concerns and the growing recognition of the rights of minority groups are all presenting society with greater complexity and uncertainty. At the organisational level, decentralisation, downsizing, re-engineering, strategic alliances, mergers and the growing demand for flexibility in the workforce, all contribute to an uncertain climate. Finally, at the individual level, the individual is now faced with a wider variety of employment options, the probability of ending up with a portfolio of jobs, more responsibility at work and more stress. Given the above, it is apparent that, at all levels, there will be a greater need for people to have entrepreneurial skills and abilities to enable them to deal with lifes current challenges and an uncertain future. Furthermore, whatever their career choice or personal situation, individuals, will be able to benefit from learning an innovative approach to problem solving; adapting more readily to change; becoming more self-reliant and developing their creativity through the study of entrepreneurship. There is no doubt that in any economic climate such learning could have far reaching benefits for society. It could be argued, therefore, that the need for entrepreneurship education and training has never been greater than now† (Henry, Colette et al). The consensus arrived at on â€Å"the need for entrepreneurship education and training has never been greater† has not percolated to the particulars of organising this kind of education and training. For instance, for Gorman et al (1997) the ‘educational objectives, subject matter and pedagogical approach might be expected to vary depending on the nature of the target audience’, while for others such as McMullan and Long (1987), Monroy (1995), OGorman and Cunningham (1997) and others the training needs of an individual will vary according to the particular stage of development of the enterprise such as awareness, pre- start-up, start-up, growth and maturity. A three-category framework for organising entrepreneurship education has been put forward by Jamieson (1984). His categorisation is in terms of â€Å"education about enterprise, education for enterprise and education in enterprise†. The role that education has to play in threes three categories is different. In the first category, education about enterprise, education has to deal mostly with awareness creation, provide information on the various aspects of setting up and running a business mostly from a theoretical perspective. The business and related modules in this category at all levels of collegiate education seek â€Å"to foster skills, attitudes and values appropriate to starting, owning, managing or working in a successful business enterprise† (Jamieson, 1984). Jamieson’s second category, education for enterprise, is concerned with providing the would-be entrepreneurs for a self-employment career, with the intellectual tools specific to setting up and run their own business. ‘Participants are taught the practical skills required for small business set-up and management, and the courses are often geared towards the preparation of a business plan.’ The third category, education in enterprise, is designed for imparting management training to established entrepreneurs and focuses on ensuring the growth and future development of the business. Management development and growth training programmes, and also specific product development and marketing courses, are in this category. Training in this category also provides skills and knowledge for people to create their own futures and solve their own problems (Jamieson, 1984,). Garavan and OCinneide (1994) emphasise more on the education and training for small business entrepreneurs, classifying the type of training that they might receive into three categories, which relate specifically to the particular stage of development. The first of these is termed small ‘business awareness education’ and is normally found in secondary school syllabi. The objective of this type of training is to encourage people to consider small business as a career option. The second category describes education and training for owners of small business, its aim being to provide practical help to those seeking to change over to self-employment. The content of training here would include instruction on raising finance, marketing the product and matters of legal issues. The third kind of education and training in respect of small business is meant to enable people to enhance and update their skills. The content of entrepreneurship programmes Entrepreneurship educators have identified that there are two objectives of entrepreneurship education programmes, which are 1) to increase the awareness and understanding of the process involved in starting and, 2) managing a new business, as well as to increase students awareness of small business ownership as a serious career option. At the initial stage of entrepreneurial development the need is to inculcate, as far as it is feasible, a sense of readiness and capability to venture into the realm of entrepreneurship. Instruction at this stage, therefore, should provide opportunities to act in an ‘entrepreneurial’ manner, as well as an exposure to several real-life entrepreneurs (Cox 1996). Life-history of truly successful entrepreneurs might serve as a ‘guiding-star’ in the students’ journey towards reaping the benefits of entrepreneurship. The song of the poet that â€Å"Lives of great men remind us/ We can make our lives sublime/.And, departing, leave behind us Footprints on the sands of time† (Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, 1807-1882) should be made to resound in their mind frequently. The main focus of training at the start-up stage should be to intensify students resolve to become entrepreneurs. Accordingly instructional emphasis should be on the development of a viable business plan which should be supported by individualised assistance in the form of financing, networking, or counselling. It is advisable to assist the students in developing their personal characteristics of leadership; promoting and strengthening their willingness to invest a significant portion of their savings or net worth to get their business started; inculcating and hardening their confidence in themselves and their abilities to sustain themselves in business, if or when things get tough; prodding them to make their own decisions; advising them to adjust their standard of living at a lower level, if necessary, until their business is firmly established; to acquire the traits of a team-player and be willing to commit themselves to long hours of work to make their business work. Hisrich and Peters (1998) examined entrepreneurship programmes from the students perspective. The students were found to be keen to have in the course content the essentials of marketing, finance, operations planning, organisation planning and venture launch planning. They also wished to include as an essential part of the Course all information concerned with obtaining resources. To find out topics considered to be most important by prospective students, Le Roux and Nieuwenhuizen (1996) conducted a survey of 220 aspiring entrepreneurs. Their survey revealed that the main areas of interest were practically the same as those mentioned by Hisrich and Peters (1998) and included marketing, entrepreneurship, business planning, management and financial management. From the discussion in this section, it is apparent that the content of the a course on entrepreneurship need to include topics considered as being relevant to the ‘science’ part of the discipline as also those that would serve to enhance the ‘art’ component of the discipline. In the following section, I propose to discuss the methods of teaching entrepreneurship. Methods of teaching entrepreneurship The literature on the learning methods employed in entrepreneurship education and training programmes mentions a variety of methods, including lectures, video presentations and handouts, case study-based learning, seminars, group discussion and role-plays. Additionally, mention is also made about both traditional and non-traditional approaches to learning. Traditional methods are said to focus mainly on theory and a didactic approach and some writers are critical of their adoption as a teaching method, because in their view they are ‘inappropriate’ in the teaching of entrepreneurship (Davies and Gibb 1991). This view is endorsed by others, Young (1997) for example, who say that a theoretical approach is not relevant to teach a subject which deals almost exclusively with activity, implying that the experience and practical skills for entrepreneurs are not something that can be acquired through conventional teaching methods. Against the contention of these writers, others like Shepherd and Douglas (1996) criticise the use of the less traditional methods like ‘role play, simulation and problem solving’, arguing that, in the classroom guidelines are to be provided to promote creative entrepreneurial thinking, but the ‘modern’ methods of teaching encourage only logical thinking which is inappropria